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IN MEMORIAM | 
Frederick Slate \\ 
Professor of Physics ie 
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ALLEN AND GREENOUGH’S 


SHORTER 
LATIN GRAMMAR 


FOR SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES 


Condensed and Revised 
BY 


JAMES BRADSTREET GREENOUGH 


ASSISTED BY 


ALBERT A. HOWARD 


Boston, U.S.A., AnD LONDON 
GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 
The Athenxum Press 
1896 


CopyRIGHT, 1896 
By GINN & COMPANY 


ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 


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bed « ee e 
ag 4 SO O48 gf fag «ee & &ee 
e*e2 0 a, « *6 ee se e. ¢ 


= Xe 


PRE PAGE, 
+0 £963 


THE present editors hold as the result of their experience, 
that a book designed to instruct in the principles of Latin 
construction, intended for the use of pupils and young teach- 
ers, ought to contain practically the whole grammar of the 
language. This is especially true of the teachers, because 
the book from which one teaches is very likely to limit 
one’s own acquisitions. They are, however, aware that a more 
compendious book may be sufficient with some teachers, and 
under certain conditions even superior. ‘They have, therefore, 
endeavored to abbreviate their complete work. by omitting 
from it such portions as could not give appreciable informa- 
tion to the students in preparatory schools. This has been 
done by noting all the references in the books used in such 
schools, and saving these along with all the general principles 
under which they came. It is hoped that by this method 
nothing has been omitted: which was “essential, and nothing 
retained which might: not at some time answer a question 
raised even among preparatory pupils. In order to facilitate 
the use of the two books side by side, and the later substitu- 
tion of the larger work, the original notation of sections and 
subsections has been carefully retained. 

In the treatment of the subject, with the exception of all 
general linguistic lore, the lines of the other work have been 
pursued. For such lore the student and teacher are referred 
to the larger grammar. 


984548 


‘iv PREFACE. 


But in regard to hidden quantities, a subject which has only 
lately begun to be studied, and whose uncertainties ought not 
to be allowed to trouble the beginner, the editors have pur- 
sued an even more conservative course than before, marking 
only such vowels long as could, in their opinion, be reason- 
ably proved to be so, and leaving as presumably short all 
others, even those which many persons, and even the editors 


themselves, were inclined to think long. 


CAMBRIDGE, September 1, 1896. 


CON EE N-TS, 


ER Gee 
PAGES 
INTRODUCTION: Elementary Definitions. : é : : I-3 
PART I.— ETYMOLOGY. 

1. Letters and Sounds . ; : ; 4-11 
ALPHABET : Classification; Phonetic Variations aie, - 4- 8 
Pronunciation; Quantity and Accent , ‘ ; 9Q-II 
2. Words and their Forms . - 5 A 

INFLECTION: Root and Stem : ; : F : ; ¢ II 
The Parts of Speech . d : : i d 12 
Gender, Number, and Case . . F . 2-14 
3. Declension of Nouns. , 2 14-34 
General Rules of Declension . : : . c : ; ; 14 
First Declension , : . : Sa : ; : 15, 16 
Second Declension : : ; 17-19 
THIRD DECLENSION: Mute Stems . : : . ; : 20 
Liquid Stems . ; : : : ; 21 
Vowel Stems : : j : : 22-26 
Irregular Nouns : si : = ; 26 

Greek Forms ; ; ; d ; 2 
Rules of Gender ; ; ; 3 ; 28 
Fourth Declension . z 5 : - ; : ; : 29 
Fifth Declension . 3 y : : F : . ¢ - 30 
Defective and Variable Nouns . : ; 2 Pkt * 31-33 


Proper Names : a ea : : : ; 3 A Sm Barge: 


vi CONTENTS. 


4. Adjectives 


First and Second Declensions 
Third Declension 
Comparison 

Numerals 


5. Pronouns 


Personal, Reflexive, Possessive, Demonstrative 
Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite . 
Correlatives (Pronouns and Adverbs) 


6. Verbs 


Inflection : ‘ ; ; 
SIGNIFICATION : Voice, Mood, Tense 
Personal Endings 
Forms: Verb-Endings 

The Verb Sum 

The Three Stems : : 
REGULAR VERB: The Four Conjugations 


Formation of the Three Stems . 


Synopsis of the Verb 
Special Forms 
First Conjugation . 
Periphrastic Conjugations . 
Second Conjugation 
Third Conjugation 
Fourth Conjugation 
Deponent Verbs ; : 
Trregular Verbs . 
Defective Verbs 
Impersonal Verbs 


7. Particles . 


Adverbs 
Prepositions 
Conjunctions 
Interjections . 


69, 70 
70, 71 

71 
72-75 

74 
76, 77 
78— 81 
81, 82 
83- 85 
85- 90 
go- 93 
93- 95 


96-104 


96- 99 
99 
100-104 
104 


CONTENTS. 


8. Formation of Words 


Roots and Stems 

SUFFIXES: Primary ; Significant Bodings 
Derivation of Nouns and Adjectives 
Derivation of Verbs 

Compound Words . 


PART II. —SYNTAX. 


Introductory Note 


7. The Sentence 


DEFINITIONS: Subject and Predicate ; Modification 
AGREEMENT : the Four Concords 
Nouns: Apposition; Predicate Agreement, 
ADJECTIVES: Rules of Agreement 
Special Uses 

PRONOUNS: Personal and Densintetive 

Reflexive 

Possessive . 

Relative . 

Indefinite 

Alius and Alter 
VERBS: Subject, Incomplete Sentences 3 
PARTICLES: Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negatives . 
Questions . 


2. Construction of Cases 


GENITIVE: With Nouns ; 
Possessive 5 
Material, Quality 
Partitive F 
Objective . 
With Adjectives 
With Verbs 


131-133 
* 233-435 


164-166 


166, 167 
. 168-171 


vii 
PAGES 
104-123 


104 
105, 106 


. 106-117 


118-121 


» 121-123 


124 


. 125-161 


125-131 
131 


135-138 


. 138-140 


141-143 


- 143) 144 


145-149 


. 149, 150 


150, 151 


» 151-154 


154-157 


. 158-161 


161-217 


. 161-166 


162-163 
164 


166 


viii CONTENTS. 


GENITIVE: With Verbs: Remembering and Forgetting 
Accusing, etc. 
Feeling 
Interest and Réfert ; éitier Verbs : 
Peculiar Genitives : Ricchaitiakdey, etc. 
Dative: Indirect Object with Transitives 
Indirect Object with Intransitives 
With Compounds . 
Of Possession ; of Agency 
Purpose or End; Dative with Adjectives 
Reference ; Ethical 
AccusATIVE: Direct Object . , : 
Cognate Accusative ; Two Accusatives 
Idiomatic and Special Uses 
VOCATIVE . 
ABLATIVE: its Several tas" 
Of Separation and Privation : 
Source, Material, Cause 
Agent, of Comparison : ‘ : 
Manner, Means, Instrument, Accompaniment 
Difference, Quality, Price, Specification 
Locative: Special Uses j : 
Absolute . 
Time and Place 
Use of Prepositions 


3. Syntax of the Verb . 


Moons: Indicative 
Subjunctive : Gedasat Use 


8 Hortatory 
Optative 
is Deliberative . 
Imperative 
Infinitive 
TENSES: Of Incomplete hee 
Present . 
Imperfect . 
Future A 
Of Completed Action 
Perfect . 


Pluperfect . 


PAGES 
168 
169 


170 


. 170,171 


171, 172 


. 172-174 


174-177 


. 178,179 


180, 181 


. 181-183 


183-185 


. 185-187 


187-191 


. IQI, 192 


193 


- 193, 194 


194, 195 


- 195-198 


198-200 


+ 200-202 


202-205 


+ 205, 206 


206-208 


. 208-214 


214-217 


. 218-255 


218 
219 
220 
221 
222 


. 222-224 


225-230 
230 
230-232 


CONTENTS. 


Future Perfect 
Epistolary Tenses 
Of the Subjunctive 
Sequence of Tenses 
Of the Infinitive . 
PARTICIPLES : - : 
Distinctions of Tense 
Adjective Use 
Predicate Use 
Future Participle 
Gerundive 
Gerund and Gerundive 
Supines . 


4. Conditional Sentences 


Protasis and Apodosis 
Classification of Forms 
Simple Conditions . 

Future Conditions : 
Conditions Contrary to Fact . 
General Conditions 
Condition Disguised 
Condition Omitted 

Potential Subjunctive 
Subjunctive of Modesty 
Verbs of Necessity 

Complex Conditions . 
Particles of Comparison 
Concessive Clauses 

Proviso. . , : : 
Use of Si and its Compounds 


5. Dependent Constructions 


RELATIVE CLAUSES: = ta eres z 
Conditional Relative Clauses 
Clauses of Purpose 
Clauses of Result . 
Clauses of Characteristic . 
Causal Clauses 


ix 


PAGES 


. 236, 237 


237 
ox 
237-242 


. 242, 243 


244-250 


» 244, 245 


246 


. 247-249 


249 
250 
251-254 
aya 


256-271 


256 
257-259 
259 
260, 261 
262 
263 
264 


. 271-304 


271-284 
271 
272-275 


- 275-277 


277-279 
279 


CONTENTS. 


RELATIVE CLAUSES: Relations of Time 


SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES: 


INDIRECT DISCOURSE: 


Important Rules of Syntax . 


General Rule . 
Special Rules 
Structure of the Period 


Postquam, etc. 

Cum Temporal 

Cum Causal 

Antequam, Priusquam 
Dum, Donec, and Quoad . 


Infinitive Clauses 
Clauses of Purpose 
Clauses of Result 
Clauses with Quod 
Indirect Questions . 


Formal Indirect Discourse 
Subordinate Clauses 

Tenses in Indirect Discourse 
Conditions, Questions, Commands 
Informal Indirect Discourse 
Integral Clauses 


6. Arrangement . 


PART III.— PROSODY. 


7. Quantity. 


General Rules of Quantity 
Quantity of Final Syllables 
Quantity of Penultimates 


2. Rhythm 


MEASURES OF RHYTHM: Feet 


The Musical Accent 


. 285-295 
. 285-287 


PAGES 
280-284 
281 

281 

282 

283 

284 


287-290 


+ 290-293 


293 


+ 294, 295 


295-304 
296 


297 


- 298, 299 
- 299-303 


303 
304 


» 305-311 


312-316 
312 
314 
315 


317-322 


317 
318, 319 
320 


322-324 
322 


323 


CONTENTS. xi 


PAGES 

3. Versification . 5 ; - 324-326 

The Verse . ; : : : : : : : . : spaade 
DACTYLIC VERSE: Hexameter . ; : : ; ‘ : 325 
Elegiac Stanza . : : ; : . S 2°326 

MISCELLANEOUS: Reckoning of Time . ; 2 , . + 327, 328 
Measures of Value Z ; c : = a eal a aO 

Glossary of Terms . : : , ; - 332-335 

Abbreviations : ‘ : ! ; ‘ aes 4) 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS : ‘ ; : : ; 337 





LATIN GRAMMAR. 


+0 $96 3 e-— 


INTRODUCTION. 


ELEMENTARY DEFINITIONS. 


1. The study of Grammar includes: (1) the Forms of 
Words (Etymology); (2) the Uses of Words, or the ways 
of connecting them in sentences (Syntax); (3) the Forms 
of Verse (Prosody). 


PARTS OF SPEECH. 


2. Words are Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, 
Participles, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, or [nter- 
jections. ‘These are called Parts of Speech. 


Notre. — There is no word in Latin for the Articles a, az, the. 


8. A Noun is the name of a person, place, or thing: 
as, Cesar, Rome, house, strength, glory. Names of persons 
and places are Proper Nouns; the others are Common 
Nouns. 


4. An Adjective is a word which describes a noun: 
as, a bvave man, a green tree. 


5. A Pronoun is a word which denotes a person, place, 
or thing without naming or describing it. It may be — 

a. Personal: /, we (ist person); thou, ye, you (2d person); he, 
she, tt, they (3d person). 


Note. — There is in Latin no personal pronoun of the 3d person, but a 
demonstrative may be used instead; and the others are used only for 
emphasis, being commonly given in the verb-ending. 


© “dN fRODUCTION 


* 
a 
° 
. 
en 


6. Possessives MY, mine; ‘thy, thine; his, her, hers; our, ours; 
yours yours; ‘thetr, theirs; myself, himself, themselves, and the like. 

c. Reflexive: these end, in English, in -sedf or -se/ves, following 
a verb or preposition: as, / blame myself; he came to himself. 

d@. Demonstrative: ¢his, these; that, those. 

é. Relative: who, which; whoever, whatever. 

/. Interrogative: who? which? what? 


Nore. — Possessives, demonstratives, relatives, and interrogatives all 
have the form of adjectives, and are called Adjective Pronouns. 
The relatives whoever, whatever are called Indefinite Relatives. 


6. A Verb is a word which asserts, asks, or commands: 
as, he speaks, do you know ? come to me. 


7. A Participle is an adjective which describes the 
act or condition asserted by a verb: as, speaking, chosen. 


8. An Adverb is a word used with a verb or adjective 
to express time, place, or manner: as, xow, here, nobly . 
done. 


9. A Preposition is a word connecting a noun in a 
dependent relation with other words in the same sentence: 
as, in, from, among, into, beyond. 


10. A Conjunction is a word used to connect sentences 
or parts of sentences: such words are and, or, if, but. 

NotTe.— Some words,—as, while, because, till, nevertheless, —used 
both to define and to connect, are called Adverbial Conjunctions. 

11. Interjections are mere exclamations, and are not, 
strictly, Parts of Speech: as, ak! ho! alas! 


THE SENTENCE. 


12. A Sentence is a form of words containing an 
Assertion, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command; 
and it is, accordingly, declaratory, interrogative, exclama- 
tory, or tmperative. 


THE SENTENCE. 3 


13. The Subject of a sentence denotes the person or 
thing spoken of: it may be (1) a Noun, a Pronoun, or a 
Phrase ; or (2) it may be given in the ending of a Verb. 


Nore.— This latter case is regular in Latin: as, doce-o, / teach ; doce-t, 
he (or she) teaches ; doce-nt, they teach. 


14. The Predicate is that which is spoken of the 
Subject. It may be a Verb; and it must contain a verb. 
Thus a whole Latin sentence may consist of a verb alone. 


Nore. — If the Predicate is a verb alone — as, “the sun shzmes’’ — this 
verb is called Neuter, or Intransitive; if the verb requires an Object —as, 
“T see the sun” —it is called Transitive. A noun or adjective used with a 
neuter verb to complete the statement — as, “these men are brave” —is 
called the Complement. 

15. The Object of a verb denotes the person or thing 
affected by the action: as, I wrote ¢he letter. 

NoTE.— The Object may be direct or indirect: in the sentence, “I 
wrote you a letter,” /e¢éer is the Direct object, and you the Indirect. 

16. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject or 
predicate of its own, which may be used as an adjective 
or adverb: as, “a man of great virtue” (Adjective Phrase) ; 
“TJ will come w¢thin three days’ (Adverbial Phrase). 


17. A Clause is a group of words, with subject and 
- predicate of its own, used to add something to a sentence, 
or to qualify its meaning: as, “I spoke and he listened”; 
‘‘qwhen he had heard, he went away.” 

Note. —A sentence so modified is called compound ; if one part (as in 
the second example) depends on the other, it is called complex. 

18. A noun, pronoun, adjective, or verb is said to 
AGREE with another word, when it is required to be in 
the same gender, number, case, or person. A verb or 
preposition is said to GOVERN a noun, when it requires a 
noun in connection to be in a particular Case. 


4 LETTERS AND SOUNDS. [$§ 1, 2. 


PART FIRST.—ETYMOLOGY. 





1. LETTERS AND SOUNDS. 


ALPHABET. 


The Latin alphabet is the same as the English (which, 
in fact, was borrowed from it), except that it has no w. 


Classification of the Letters. 


1. The letters are divided into Vowels (Utterae vocalés) 
and Consonants (/é¢terae consonaniés). Two vowels united 
so as to express one sound are called a Diphthong. 


The VOWELS are a, e, i, 0, u, y. The rest of the letters are 
Consonants. The Diphthongs are ae, au, ei, eu, oe, ui. 


2. Consonants. —a. p, b, c (kk), q,g, t, d, as also ch and 
_th, are called Mutes (Explosives, Momentary sounds). 

These are produced ‘by an entire stoppage of the breath and a 

subsequent explosion. They are classified as follows :— 

I. p, ¢ (k), q, t, s, are called Surds (tenwés). 

These are without vocal tone. 

2. b, g, da, z, are called Sonants (medzae). 

These are accompanied by a slight vocal tone. 


3. ch and th are called Aspirates. 

In these a breath follows the explosion. They aré found chiefly 
in words borrowed from the Greek. ph, which also was borrowed 
from the Greek, probably was never sounded as an aspirate in Latin. 


6. mand n are called Nasals. 

These are pronounced with the same position of the organs as b 
and d, except that the nasal passage is opened instead of closed. 
A third nasal, n adulterinum (like n in ink), corresponding in the 
same way to g, existed in the language, but had no separate sign. 





§§ 3-5-] CLASSIFICATION OF THE LETTERS. 5 


3. From the organs of speech chiefly used in the 
utterance of the mutes and nasals they are divided into 
Labials (pronounced with the lips), Palatals (with the 
palate), and Linguals (with the tongue). 

Their relations are seen in the following table :— 


SURD. SONANT. ASPIRATE. NASAL. 
Labial: p b wanting m 
Palatal: c(k),q 8g ch n (as in zh) 
Lingual; t d th n (as in vent). 


a. Other useful special classes of sounds are distinguished, as, — 
Liquids: 1, m, 0, f. 
Fricatives (Spirants): f, ph, th (not aspirate, the same as in /#7z7), h, 8, z. 
Stbilants: $8, Z. ° 
Double Consonants: x (cs), z (ds). 
Semi-vowels: i, v (see § 4). 

b. h is merely a breathing. 





4. Semi-Vowels. —i and v (u) before a vo: in the 
same syllable are consonants and have thesound of Eng- _ 
lish_consonant-y_and_w respectively. (Cf. i and u in 


pinion, unguent.) They are sometimes called Semz-Vowels. 





Nore. — The Latin alphabet had no separate signs for the semi-vowels; 
but used i for both vowel and consonant i, and v or u (without distinction) 
for both vowel and consonant v (u). The character j was unknown in 
classical times, and u was but a graphic variation of v. In medizval Latin 
j and v came to. be used to indicate the consonant sounds of i and v (u), 
and this usage is often followed by modern editors in writing small letters. 
In writing capitals, however, the forms J and U are avoided. Thus, 
iuuenis, iuvenis, or juvenis,— but IVVENIS. 

In this book vowel and consonant i are both represented by the same 
character, i; but v is used for the consonant, u for the vowel sound of v 
(u). Thus, idistus, vir, iuvenis. 


5. The Romans distinguished Long vowels from Short 
in sound, but had no regular means to express the differ- 
ence. This difference is called Quantity; and such vowels 
are said to be long or short by nature. 


6 LETTERS AND SOUNDS. [$§ 6-10. 


In modern times short vowels are marked thus: a, €; and long, 
thus : a, €; those that may be pronounced either long or short, thus : 
a, &. In this book all simple vowels not marked are supposed to be 
short. But final o and i are marked according to their prevailing 
quantity in poetry, though they sometimes vary from this. 


6. The character c (surd palatal) originally stood for the sonant 
palatal (g). 

Hence, a, b, c, but Alpha, Beta, Gamma. This force it always retained 
in the abbreviations C. (for Gaius), and Cn. (Gnaeus). 

7. Till after the age of Augustus the use of u (vowel) after u (v) 
was avoided. This was done either by preserving 0, when but for 
this tendency it would have become u, as in voltus (but cultus), 
servos (but dominus); or in case of quu, by WAEHE cu, as in ecus 
(for equos, later equus). 

Hence, where in inflection quu would appear, it should be written 
and pronounced cu, as, ecus, equi, sequitur, secuntur. 


Phonetic Variations. 


8. Variations of sound are of two classes : — 

a. Inherited differences of form in the same root (see § 22). 

6. Unconscious changes of sounds developed in course of time. in 
the language itself. 


9. Inherited differences appear in variations of vowels, 
and less commonly in liquids connected with vowels. 


a. Vowels vary between long and short of the same kind: as, 
emo, / buy, émi, / bought; regs, / rule, régina, a gueen. 

6. Vowels vary in quality: as, pendd, 7 weigh, pondus, weight. 

c. Vowels vary between a short vowel of one quality and a long 
vowel or diphthong of another: as, miser, wretched, maestus, sad. 

@. Liquids are transposed with vowels, sometimes with change of 
the vowel: as, spernd, / sjurn, sprévi, J spurned. 

10. Unconscious changes occur in both vowels and 
consonants. 

a. Vowels and diphthongs are weakened: as, factus, »zade, cOn- 
fectus, made up; agmen, a march, agminis, of a march. 


6. Two vowels coming together are very often contracted: as, 
cdgo for co-agd ; obit for obiit ; nil for nihil. 


a 


§§ 11, 12.] PHONETIC VARIATIONS. 7 


c. Vowels are often lost between two consonants (syucofe): as, 
audacter for audaciter. 

ad. Vowels are inserted between two consonants in the effort to 
pronounce a difficult combination of sounds (cf. sailors’ hed/um for 
helm): as, Herculés for Herclés, drachuma for drachma. 


11. a. Consonants are substituted one for another. Thus: r for 
s between two vowels or before m or n: as, eram (root ES), generis 
(for tgenesis, from genus), maereo (cf. maestus). 

é. Consonants are omitted: as, examen (exagmen), caementum 
(caed-mentum), autumnus (auctumnus, root AUG), pérg6 (per-rego). 

Especially h: as, débed (dé-habed). And consonant i and v: as, 
conicid (con-iaciS), prorsus (prdo-vorsus). 

c. Consonants are unconsciously inserted in passing from one 
sound to another: as, sumo, / ¢ake, simpsi, / Zook. 

@. Consonants and vowels are unconsciously changed (dissimzla- 
tion) to avoid a repetition of the same sound in two successive 
syllables: parilia (for palilia, from Palés), meridiés (for medidiés). 

é. A consonant is changed by the influence of a neighboring 
sound, — . 

1. Into the same sound as the neighbor (complete assimilation): 
as, Céssi (céd-si), summus (sup-mus), sella (sed-la). 

2. Into a sound of the same organ or the same quality (or both) 
as the neighbor (partial assimilation) (see table of mutes, § 3): 
as, conterd (com-ter6, labial to lingual), scriptus (scrib-tus, sonant . 


_ to surd), ségmentum (tsecmentum, surd to sonant), imper6 (in-per6, 


lingual to labial). 


42. Variations of Spelling occur in manuscripts and 
inscriptions, and especially in modern editions. Most 
are provided for in Vocabularies. 


a. The letters and sounds of ci and ti are interchanged before a 
vowel: nintid (ntincid), contid (concid), condicid (conditis). 

6. Several words are written sometimes with and sometimes 
without an initial h: as, haréna (aréna), erus (herus), umerus 
(humerus), imor (hiimor). 

c. In later Latin, 6, ae, and oe became alike in sound (like @ in 
fate), and are often confounded in writing : as, faenus (fénus, foenus). 

@. Other ‘words variously spelled are: aduléscéns, adoléscéns ; 
ahéneus, aéneus ; anulus, annulus. 


8 LETTERS AND SOUNDS. (S§ 13-15. 


Combinations. 


13. Two words are often united in writing, and some- 
times in sound. Thus, — : 


a. Conjunctions or other particles and pronouns are sometimes 
connected: as in etenim, tinusquisque, iamdtdum, iamdit, siquis, 
siquidem ; also a few short phrases, as, quaré, quamobrem, rés- 
publica, ilsitirandum, paterfamilias, tecum. 

6. The verb est,’zs, is joined with the preceding word, especially 
in the old poets, when the two would be united by elision: as, homGst, 
periculumst, qualist (qualis est) (like ¢hou’rt, /’ve). 

c. Similar contractions are found in vin’ (visne), scin’ (scisne), 
sis (S1 vis), sodés (si audés), sultis (si vultis). So in English, 
don’t, won't (wol not). 


Syllables. 


14. In Latin every word has as many syllables as it 
has vowels or diphthongs. 


a. In the division of words into syllables a single consonant or a 
mute followed by a liquid between two vowels must be written and 
pronounced with the latter. 

6. This rule is sometimes improperly extended to doubled con- 
sonants, or any combination of consonants which can be used to 
begin a word: as, ho-spes, ma-gnus ; but usage varies. 

c. In compounds, the parts should be separated: as, ab-est, 
ob-latus. 


Kindred Forms. 


15. In English words derived from the Latin, the original letters 
are retained (as amdztion from ambitid). But in native English 
words which are cognate with the Latin, the original sounds are 
represented in the two languages by closely related letters which 
regularly correspond: as, — 


LATIN. x ENGLISH. 
i TH: tu, thou, trés, three, tenuis, thin. 
da T: duo, wo, déns, tooth, seded, siz. 


Pp F: pater, father; pullus, foal, pauci, few. 


§§ 16, 17.] SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 9 


Sounds of the Letters. 


Nore. — The pronunciation of Latin is different in different countries. 
In America, it usually follows what may be called the Roman (or Phonetic) 
method. 


16. By the Roman method, every letter has always the 
same sound. 


Note. — A long vowel in our enunciation almost necessarily acquires 
a slightly different quality from a short one, as in doot and foot, machine 
and holiest. See also bs below. 


as in 7dea. 

as eh ? (clipped). 
as in holzest. 

as in obey. 

as oo in foot. 


VOWELS: as in father; 

as eh ? (prolonged); they; 

as in machine, 

as in holy; 

as oo in boot; 

y between w and z (German 7). 

DIPHTHONGS: ae like ay; oe like oy; au like ow in now. 

ei as in ezght; eu as eh’o0,; ui as 00'ee. 

( c and g are always hard, as in come, get. 

s is always sharp, as in sea, lips. 

i cons. is like y in young; v (cons. u), like w in 
wing, qu as in English. 

bs is like fs; ch like £; ph like f 

n before s or f was combined with the preceding 
vowel somewhat as French nasal ~, making the 
vowel long. 

Zz as dz in adze. 

| th as in vatholz, later as in thin. 


ci Ol “' 1 I 
mc Oc = oe pe 


CONSONANTS, 
as in English, ¢ 
except that: 





When two consonants come together (as in con-d6, pos-teri), or 
a consonant is doubled (as in an-nus, tl-lus, mit-td), care should be 
taken to pronounce both letters distinctly. 


17. Roman names in English (as /udius Cesar), scien- 
tific terms, titles of books, and familiar quotations (as 
é pluribus unum; viva voce; vice versa; vent, vidi, vict, 
etc.) should be pronounced by the English method. In 
this the letters have the same sounds as in English. 


10 LETTERS AND SOUNDS. [§§ 18, 19. 


Quantity and Accent. 


18. The Accent in Latin depends on the Quantity (or 
length) of the last syllable but one. A long vowe/ makes 
a long syllable. A short vowel may make a long syllable 
if obstructed by consonants. The following are simple 
rules for quantity. 


a. A vowel before another vowel or h is short: as in via, nihil. 

6. A diphthong is long: as in aedés, foédus. So, also, a vowel 
derived from a diphthong: as, exclidd (ex-claudd). 

c. A vowel formed by contraction is long: as, nil (nihil). 

@. A syllable in which a vowel is followed by two consonants 
(except a mute with 1 or r), or a double consonant (x, z) is long by 
Position; as in pingd, saxum, Mezentius. Before nf and ns, gn 
and gm, and i consonant the vowel itself becomes long by nature: 
as in inferd, praeséns, magnus, Aagmen, hiiius. 

é. A syllable in which a short vowel is followed by a mute with 1 
or r is common; 27.é. it may be long in verse: as in alacris, multiplex. 

Jj. A vowel before nd, nt is regularly short by nature: as, amant, 
amandus from amare. 


19. The accent in words of more than one syllable 
is on the last syllable but one (Penult), or the last but 
two (Antepenult). 


a. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first 
syllable : RO’ma, ve’h6, i’pse. 

6. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult, 
if that is long: as, amicus, praesen’tis; if it is short or common, 
on the Antepenult: as, do’minus, a‘lacris, la’tébrae, conti‘nwo, 
praete’ritum, dissocia’bilis. 


Nore. — In words of more than four syllables a secondary accent 
usually arises at a convenient distance from the main accent: as, naviga”- 
tid’‘nibus, pecilia’ria. 

c. When an Enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the 
syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short: as, déa’que, 
amaré’ve, tibi‘ne, ita’que (avd... so), as distinguished from i’taque 
(therefore). 


§§ 20-23.] INFLECTION. It 


ad. EXCEPTION: Certain apparent compounds of facid retain the 
accent of the simple verb: as, benefa’cit, calefa’cit (see § 169. a). 
(These are not true compounds, but phrases.) 


2. WORDS AND THEIR FORMS. 
INFLECTION. 


20. Latin is an inflected language: z.e. changes are 
made in the forms of words to show their grammatical 
relations. 

Such changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or at 


the beginning, but oftener in the termination: as, vOx, @ voice; 
vocis, of a voice; tangit, he touches; tetigit, he touched. 


Root and Stem. 


21. The Stem is the body of a word, of which the 
terminations are changed. 


22. A Root is the shortest and simplest form that can 
express the main idea of a word. It is common also to 
other words either in the same or kindred languages.} 


Thus the root of the stem rég- (in réx) is REG, which does not 
mean fo rule, or J rule, or ruling, but merely expresses vaguely the 
idea of directing, and cannot be used as a part of speech without 
added terminations. 


23. The Stem is sometimes the same as the root: as in duc-is, 
of a leader, ter-t, he bears; but it is more frequently formed from 
the root, — 


1. By changing or lengthening its vowel: as in scob-s, sawdust 
(SCAB, shave); rég-is, of a king (REG, direct); vOc-is, of a voice 
(voc, calZ). 

2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root): as 
in fug-a, flight (FUG + a); fugi-s, you fly (FUG + yo); pango, 7 fasten 
(PAG + no). 


1 For example, the root sta is found in the Greek tern, Latin sistere 
and stare, German ftejen, and English stand. 


12 WORDS AND THEIR FORMS. [$§ 24-28. 


3. By two or more of these methods: as in diic-it, he /eads 
(DUC + 0); toll6, 7 raise (TUL + yo). 

4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of develop- 
ment peculiar to the language. (See §§ 158 ff.) 


24. Inflectional terminations are variously modified by combina- 
tion with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, leading to the 
various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see § 32). ' 


The Parts of Speech. 


25. Words are divided into nine Parts of Speech: 
Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Participles, Adverbs, 
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. These are 
more fully treated in the Introduction, pp. 1 and 2. 


26. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles have inflections 
of declension, to show gender, number, and case. Verbs have inflec- 
tions of conjugation, to show voice, mood, tense, number, and person. 


Nore. — Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison to 
indicate degree. These inflections are, however, properly stem-formations 
made by derivation (cf. § 89). 


27. Parts of speech which are not inflected are called Particles : 
such are Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 


ne Gender. 


28. The genders distinguished in Latin are three: 
Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 


a. The gender of Latin nouns is either xa¢ura/ or grammatical. 
Natural gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted: as, 
puer, doy; puella, gzv/; donum, g7/7. 

‘6. Grammatical gender is a formal distinction as to sex where no 
actual sex exists in the object. It shows itself only in the form of 
the adjective joined with the noun: as, lapis magnus (M.), a great 
stone ; manus mea (F.), my hand. 

Norte. — A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belonging 
to a class: as, mancipium tuum, your slave. 

. Names of classes or bodies of persons may be of any gender: as, exercitus 
(M.), aciés (F.), and agmen (N.), army; operae (F. pl.), workmen ; cOpiae 
(F. pl.), troops. i 


§§ 29-31.] NUMBER AND CASE. 13 


29. a. Names of Male beings, Rivers, Winds, Months, 
and Mountains, are masculine. 

6. Names of Female beings, Cities, Countries, Plants, 
Trees, and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), 
and of most abstract Qualities, are feminine. 

To each of these there are some exceptions. 

c. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, words, terms or 
phrases used as nouns, or quoted merely for their form, 
are neuter : as, — 


fas, right; nihil, nothing; gummi, gum, scire tuum, your 
knowledge (to know). 


30. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, according 
to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common Gender: © 
as, exsul, exz/e; bOs, ox or cow. 

a. If a noun signifying a thing without life may be either 
masculine or feminine, — as, diés, day; finis, exd, — it is sometimes 
said to be of Doubtful Gender. 

6. Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, in- 
dependent of sex. These are called Epicene. Thus lepus, dave, is 
always masculine, and vulpés, fox, is always feminine. 


Number and Case. 


81. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles have 
two Numbers, szmguldar and plural ; and six Cases, nomina- 
tive, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, ablative. 


a. The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence. 

6. The Genitive may generally be translated by the English 
Possessive, or by the Objective with the preposition of. 

c. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object ($ 177). It may 
usually be translated by the Objective with the preposition fo or for; 
but sometimes by the Objective without a preposition. z 

d. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object of a verb 
(intr. § 15, § 177). It is used also with many Prepositions. 

e. ~The Vocative is the case of Direct Address. 

f. The Ablative may usually be translated by the Objective with 
Srom, by, with, in, or at. It is also often used with prepositions. 


14 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§§ 32, 33- 


g. All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, may be used 
as object-cases; and are sometimes called Odligue Cases. 

A. In names of towns and a few other wrds appear traces of 
another case (the Locative), denoting the place where. 


3. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 


32. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distin- 
guished by the case-ending of the Genitive Singular, and 
by the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem. 


DEcL. 1. Gen, Sing. ae Characteristic 4 (anciently a) 
“ 2. ‘“c i “ re) 
eee “ is a i or a Consonant 
‘“ 4. “ ts (uis) ‘“ i 
sc 5. ‘“c él “ é 


a. The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant-stem, by 
omitting the case-ending ; if a vowel-stem, by substituting for the 
case-ending the characteristic vowel. 

6. The Nominative of most masculine and feminine nouns (except 
in the first declension) is formed from the stem by adding s. But 
many end in 0, or in the liquids, 1, n, r. 


38. The following are general Rules of Declension : — 


a. The Vocative is always the same as the Nominative, except in 
the singular of nouns in us of the second declension. 

6. In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, 
and in the plural end in a. 

c. The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends 
in m; the Accusative plural in s. 

d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) 
the Dative singular ends in i. — 

é. The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike. 

fj. The Genitive plural always ends in um. 

g. Final i, 0, u of inflection are always Jong, final a is short, 
except in the Ablative singular of the first declension ; final e is long 
in the first and fifth declensions, shorvz¢ in the second and third. 


4 


Cure, Met OL, ODP COB, 


§§ 34-36-] FIRST DECLENSION. 15 





34. The Case-endings of the several declensions are the follow- 
ing, rare forms being given in Jarenthesis, Greek forms in ztalics :— 


DECL. I. II. III. IV. Vv. 
Sing. 
N. a, 4, Gs, &s, US, UM, EF, OS, 07, EUS & (or modified stem) us, 7 és 
G. ae (ai) és i (ius) 0, @, ez is, yos, Os Us (uis)  61(6) 
D. ae (ai) © (1) ez, ed i (Z, rare) ui (@) &i (é) 
A. am, @u, éx um, on, ea em (im) 27, yz, @ um, 0 em 
v. a, 2, Z é (i) er, ez (as nom.)z,y us,@ és 
A. a, @ 6, 26 e (i), 1, yé a é 
Plur. 
N.V. ae i_& 6s, a, ia, és Us, ua és 
G. arum (Gm) Grum (Gm, 6m) dz um, ium, ¢éz uum érum 
D.A. is (Abus) is (Gbus ibus ibus (tibus) bus 
A. as os €s (is), a, ia, ds Us, ua és 


FIRST DECLENSION. 


35. The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends 
in 4 (originally 4), and except in Greek nouns the 
nominative is like the stem. 

Nouns of the First Declension are thus declined :— 


SINGULAR. , PLURAL, 
Nom. stella} a (or the) star. stellae, stars. 

. GEN. stellae, of a star. stellarum, of stars. 
Dat. stellae, Zo (or for) a star. stellis, ¢o (or for) stars. 
Acc. stellam, a star. stellas, stars. 
Voc.-stella, thou-star / stellae, ye stars / 


ABL. stellA, wzth, from, etc.,a star. stellis, with, from, etc., stars. 


-Genper. — Nouns of the first declension are Feminine. 


Exceptions: Nouns masculine from their meaning: as, nauta, 
satlor. So a few family or personal names: as, Mtréna, Scaevola. 


36. CasE-Forms.—a. The Genitive singular anciently ended in 
-ai, which is occasionally found: as, aulai. 

6. Anold genitive in -as is preserved in the word familias, used 
in the combinations pater (mater, filius, filia) familias, father, etc., 
of a family (plur. patrés familias or familiarum). 


UP, 2, AY 
16 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§ 37- 


c. The Locative form (§ 31.) for the singular ends in -ae; for 
the plural in -is: as, ROmae, at Rome; Athénis, at Athens. 
d. The Genitive plural is sometimes found in -tim instead of 
-arum, especially in compounds with cdla and géna : as, caelicoltim, 
of the celestials; Troiugentim, of the sons of Troy; Aeneadim, of 
the sons of A:neas; so amphora and drachma. 
é. The Dative and Ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter, 
end in an older form -abus. 


Greek Nouns. 


87. Many nouns of the first declension borrowed from 
_ the Greek are entirely Latinized, but many retain traces 
of their Greek forms in various degrees. 


acourt(F.). Electra (F.). a synopsis (F.). the art of music (F.). 


Nom. aula Electra (a) epitomé miisica (6) 
GEN. aulae Electrae epitomés miisicae (6s) 
Dart. aulae Electrae epitomae miisicae 
Acc. aulam Electram (an) — epitomén misicam (6n) 
Voc. E itomé aisica -(€ 
ABL. aula Electra epitomé miisica (€) 


Andromache (¥.). Aneas (M.). Leonidas (M.). a Persian (M.). 


Nom. Andromaché (a) Aenéas Leonidas Persés (a) 
GEN. Andromachés (ae) / Aenéae Lednidae _Persae 
Dat. Andromachae Aenéae Lednidae _— Persae 


Acc. Andromachén (am) Aenéan (am) Lednidam _ Persén (am) 


Voc. _Andromach6..<a)---—-*renéa-()——-hednida.-(&)...Persa 


ABL. Andromaché (a) Aenéa Leonida Persé (a) 
Anchises (M.). son of A-neas (M.). comet (M.). 

Nom. Anchisés Aeneadés (&) cométés (a) 

GEN. Anchisae Aeneadae cométae 

Dat. Anchisae Aeneadae cométae 

Acc. Anchisén (am) — Aeneadén cométén (am) 

Voc. Anchisé (a,.4).... —Aeneadé (a) cométa 

ABL. Anchisé (a) Aeneadé (a) cométa (@) 


a. Many Greek nouns vary between the first, the second, and the 
third declensions: as, Bodtae (gen. of Bodtés, -is), Thiicydidas 
(acc. plur. of Thiicydidés, -is). See § 43.@ and § 63. 


§§ 38, 39-] SECOND DECLENSION. Mee |, 


6. Greek forms are found only in the singular; the plural is 





regular : as, comé@tae, -arum, etc. QM, Mak, ORS, % 
Yuan, Gam, We. ( 
SECOND DECLENSION. Re 


Oo tert 


38. The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends 
in 6 (as of vir, vird-; servos (-us), servé-; dominus, dominé-). 
The nominative is formed from the stem by adding s in D8 
masculines and feminines, m in neuters, the 6 being fe 
weakened to t. But the ending -quo makes -cus (not quus), ~~ 

In most nouns whose stem ends in 18 the s is not \ 
added, but o is lost, and e intrudes before r, if not already 
present (cf. chamber from Fr. chambre): as, ager, stem 
agré-, Greek aypds. : 

Nouns of the Second Declension are thus declined : — 


Sing. s/ave (M.). boy (M.). field (M.). man (M.). war (N.). 








STEM servo- puero- agro- viro- bello- 
Nom. servus (os) puer ager vir bellum 
GEN. servi. pueri agri viri belli 
DAT. serv6 puero agro viro bells 
Acc. servum (om) puerum agrum virum bellum 
Voc. Same pret a6er—— Vir ~beltum 
ABL. servo _ puerd agro. vir6 _ bells 
Plur. 

Nom. servi pueri agri viri bella 
GEN. servOrum puerdrum agrorum  virdrum _bellorum 
DAT. servis pueris agris viris bellis 
Acc. servos pueros agros virds bella 
Voc. sexyj pueri——--— agri uiri -——beHa 
ABL. servis pueris agris viris bellis 


Norte. — Stems in -quo, like equo- have ecus (equos), equi, equo, ecum 
(equom), eque. The rest is regular. 


39. GENDER. — Nouns ending in us (0s), er, ir, are Mas- 
culine ; those ending in um (on) are Neuter. 


a. Names of towns in us (os) are Feminine: as, Corinthus. 
Also many names of plants and gems, and some others. 


18 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [$§ 40, 41. 


‘ 


6. The following in us are Neuter; their accusative is the same 

_as_the nominative: pelagus (nom. acc. plur. pelagé), sea; virus, 
poison; valgus (rarely M.), the crowd; so C&té, sea-monsters (nom. 
plur. without singular). 


] 40. CasE-Forms.—a. The Locative form of this declension 
ends for the singular in i: as, humi, ox the ground, Corinthi, at 
Corinth ; for the plural, in is : as, Philippis, at PAzlippi. 

6. The genitive of nouns in ius or ium ends in a single i: as, fili, 
of a son, but the accent of the‘nominative is retained: as, ingé‘ni, 
of genius.1 The same contraction occurs in the genitive singular and 
the dative and ablative plural of nouns in -aius and -6ius: as, Grais, 
for the Greeks ; Pompéi, of Pompey. 
<— c. Proper names in -ius lose e in the vocative, retaining the accent, 

of the nominative: as, Vergi/li; also, filius, sow; genius, divine 

guardian; as, audi, mi fili, hear, my son. ; 
d@. Greek names in -ius have the vocative -ie. Adjectives in -ius 
form the vocative in -ie, and some of these are occasionally used as 
nouns ; as, Lacedaemonie, O Spartan / 
~, ¢. The genitive plural often has tim or (after v) Gm (cf. § 7) for 

Orum, especially in the poets: as, dem, supertim, divom, of she 

Gods, virim, of men. Also in compounds of vir, and in many words 

of money, measure, and weight : as, Sévirtim, of the Sevirz, nummiim, - 

of coins, iigerum, of acres. 
_- f- Deus, god, has vocative deus; plural: nominative and vocative 
" dei or di (for dit); genitive dedrum, detim ; dative and ablative deis 
or dis (for diis). For the genitive plur. divim or divom (from 
divus, divine) is often used. 


Zo 


hey: The following stems in ero-, in which e belongs to the stem, 
retain the e throughout : — 
adulter, adu/terer ; gener, son-in-law ; puer, doy ; 
socer, father-in-law ; vesper, evening. 
Also, compounds in fer and ger (stem fero-, gero-): as, licifer, 
morning star; armiger, squire. : 
a. Some of these have an old nominative in -erus: as, socerus. 
So vocative puere, a doy, as from puerus (regularly puer). 


1 The genitive in ii occurs twice in Virgil, and constantly in Ovid, but 
was unknown to Cicero. ‘The first i was probably retained in sound as y. 


\ pF we AA hres 
aaa lain ps a | AKU 


: 4 L A i\ tt 
. THIRD DECLENSION. 19 


§§ 42, 43. 
b. Vir, man, has gen, viri; the adjective satur, sated, has saturi; 
vesper, evening, has abl. vespere (loc. vesperi, 27 the evening). 
c. Liber (a name of Bacchus) has gen. Liberi; so, too, the 
adjective liber, free, of which liberi, chz/dren, is the plural (§ 82. 4). 


42. The following not having e in the stem insert it in the nomi- 
native and vocative singular. (Cf. § 10. a.) 
ager, field, st. agro-; coluber, svake; magister, master ; 


aper, doar ; conger, sea-cel; minister, servant; 

arbiter, judge; culter, £uzfe ; oleaster, wz/d-olive,; 
auster, south wind, faber, smith; onager (-grus), w¢/d-ass ; 
cancer, craé ; beaver; scomber (-brus), mackerel. 
caper, goat ; liber, d00k ; 


_[N.B. — For the corresponding forms of Adjectives, see § 82.] 


43, Greek nouns retain many original forms and are de- 
clined as follows in the Singular, the Plural being regular : — 


4 


Sable (M.). mock-sun(n.). Delos (F.). Athos(M.). Orpheus(mM.). 
Nom. mythos parélion Délos ,. Pa Athos (6) Orpheus 


GEN. mythi parélii Déli “Atho (i) Orphei (eos) 
Dat. mythS parélis Déls Atho | Orphei 
Acc. myt parélion Délon (um) Athdn (um) Orphea 
Voc. mythe  parélion Déle Athos Orpheu 
ABL. mythd  parélis Délo Athos Orphed 


= a. Many names in -és belonging to the third declension have also 
a genitive in -1: as, Thicydidés, Thticydidi (see §§ 37. 6 and 52). 
6. Several names in -er have also a nom. in -us: as, Teucer or 
’ Teucrus. The name Panthijs has the vocative Pantht (§ 63. 2). 
¢. The genitive plural of certain titles of books takes the Greek 
termination -On: as, GeOrgicon, of the Georgics. 


THIRD DECLENSION. 


Nouns of the Third Declension are best classed accord- 
ing to their stems, as ending (1) in a Mute, (2) ina 
Liquid (1, n, r), (3) in a Vowel (i). 

A few whose §tems end in u, formerly long (gris, stis), are treated 
as consonant-stems. 


Qodwlhe. 2 : Deen, TO2A)o oo, 


ay + — 


20 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§§ 44-46. 


1. Mute-Stems. 


44. Masculine and Feminine nouns, whose stem ends 
in a Mute, form the nominative by adding -s. If the 
mute is a /ingual (t, 4), it is suppressed before -s; if it is 
a palatal (c, g), it unites with -s, forming -x: as, — 


op-is, Ops, /e/p ; cust6d-is, custOs, guardian, rég-is, rex, king.’ 
Neuters have for the nominative the simple stem (for 
some modifications, see § 45): — 
capit-is, caput, Acad; poémat-is, poéma, poem. 


45. The vowel before the final consonant of the stem 
is often modified: as, — 


adip-is, adeps; particip-is, particeps; aucup-is, auceps; 
hospit-is, hospes; capit-is, caput; cord-is, cor; poémat-is, 
poéma; apic-is, apex; indic-is, index; but, cornic-is, cornix. 


46. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : — 


Sing. help (F.). king (M.). guide (c.). soldier (M.). head (N.). 


STEM op- reg- duc- milit- capit- 
Nom. [ops] réx dux miles caput 
GEN. opis régis ducis militis capitis 
DAT. opi. régi duci militi capiti 
Acc. opem régem ducem militem caput 
Voc. ops réx dux miles caput 
ABL. ope rége duce milite capite 
Plur. wealth 
Nom. opés régés ducés milités capita 
GEN. opum régum ducum militum capitum 
Dat. opibus régibus ducibus militibus capitibus 
Acc. opés régés ducés milités capita 
Voc. opés régés ducés milités capita 
ABL.  opibus régibus ducibus militibus capitibus 


1 In these the genitive is given first to show the stem as it is shown in 
vocabularies. 


A) 


§§ 47-49.] LIQUID-STEMS. 2I 


47. In like manner are declined — 


princeps, -ipis (C.), chzef, ariés, -etis (M.), ram; 

lapis, -idis (M.), stone, itidex, -icis (M.), judge; 
custOs, -Odis (C.), guard; cornix, -icis (F.), raven; 
comes, -itis (C.), companion; poéma, -atis (N.), Doe (§ 47. 0). 


a. Many apparent mute-stems, having the genitive plural in -ium, 
are for convenience classed with i-stems (§ 54). 

6. Greek neuters (as poéma), with nominative singular in -a, 
frequently end in the dative and ablative plural in -is, and in the 
genitive plural rarely in -Grum. 

c. A few apparent istems belong here: canis, or canés, gen. 
canis (stem orig. can-), dog (cf. § 54). 


“7” «2. ~Liquid-Stems. 

48. In nouns whose stem ends in a Liquid (1, n, r), the 
nominative is the same as the (modified) stem, as follows :— 

As leodn-is, led, ion; legidn-is, legid, /egion ; virgin-is virgo, 
maiden; homin-is, homo, man, turbin-is, turb6, whirlpool; 
. Apollin-is, Apoll6; carn-is, card, flesh (see § 61); Anién-is, Anio ; 
cornicin-is, cornicen (M.), horn-blower,; carmin-is, carmen (N.), 
song; patr-is, pater, father; oper-is (originally opesis), opus, 
work; ciner-is, cinis, ashes. 

Notrr.— A few Masculine and Feminine stems have a nom. in -s as 
well as -r: as, honér-is, honds (or honor) ; arbdr-is, arbds (or arbor), tree. 

Stems in ll-, rr- (N.) lose one of their liquids in thé nominative : 

as, farr-is, far, grain; fell-is, fel, ga//. 


49. Nouns of this class are declined as follows :— 


Sing. consul (M.). lion (M.). maiden (F.). name (N.). 
Stem consul- leon- virgin- nomin- 
Nom. consul led virgo nomen 
GEN. cOnsulis lednis virginis nominis 
Dat. consuli ledni virgini nomini 
Acc. consulem leOnem -  virginem nomen 
Voc. cénsul ; led virgo nomen 
ABL. cdnsule leone virgine nomine 


1 That is, as appears from the nominative. No fast line can be drawn. 
between mute-stems and i-stems, as they were confused in both ways. 


22 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§§ 50, 51- 


Plur. 

Nom. consulés leonés virginés nomina 
GEN. consulum leonum virginum nominum 
Dat. consulibus le6nibus _virginibus nominibus 
Acc. cénsulés lednés virginés nomina 
Voc. consulés leonés virginés nomina 
ABL. cénsulibus lednibus virginibus nominibus 
Sing. Jody (N.). race (N.). ivory (N.). plain (N.). 
Stem corpor-, orig.-os- gener-,orig.-es- ebor- aequor- 
Nom. corpus genus *ebur aequor 
GEN. corporis generis eboris aequoris 
Dat. corpori generi ebori aequori 
Acc. corpus genus ebur aequor 
Voc. corpus genus ebur aequor 
ABL. corpore genere ebore aequore 
Plur. 

Nom. corpora genera ebora aequora 
GEN. corporum generum eborum aequorum 
Dart. corporibus generibus eboribus aequoribus 
Acc. corpora genera ebora aequora 

. Voc. corpora genera ebora aequora 
ABL. corporibus generibus eboribus aequoribus 


50. In like manner are declined — 


pater, patris (M.), father ; arbor (-6s), -oris (F.), “vee; 
furfur, -uris (M.), dran_; honor (-6s), -Oris (M.), Zonor; 
opus, -eris (N.), work; pignus, -eris or -oris, A/edge. 


The following real or apparent liquid-stems have the genitive 
plural in -ium, and are for convenience classed with the i-stems : 
imber, linter, Uter, venter; fur, glis, lar, mas, mts [trén]; also 
virés (pl. from vis: see § 61). “Y~ 


3. Vowel-Stems, 
51. Vowel-stems of the Third Declension end in i- (as 


turris, stem turri-; mare, stem mari-). The nominative, 
except in neuters, is formed by adding -s to the stem. 


_ §§ 52-54-] VOWEL-STEMS. 23 


a. Thirty-five nouns change i and @ in the nominative, and many 
others vary between i and @: as, civés, or civis, c7tizen ; canés or 
canis (treated as i-stem), dog. 

4. The nominative of a few stems in bri- and tri- does not add -s, 
but loses i, inserting e before r. These are imber, linter, titer, 
venter (§ 54, and cf. ager). 

c. The nominative of neuters is the same as the stem, with the 
change of ito 6 (as in mare). But wheni is preceded by al or ar, 
the e is lost, as in animal (§ 53. c). 


52. Nouns of this class are declined as follows :— 


Sing. ¢hirst(F.). tower (F.). Cloud (F.). seat (N.).  animal(N.). 


Stem  siti- turri- nibi- sedili- animali- 
Nom.  sitis turris nubés_ sedile animal 
GEN. | sitis turris nibis, sedilis - animalis 
Dat. siti turri nubi sedili animali 
Acc.  sitim turrem (im) niibem sedile animal 
Voc.  sitis turris nibés sedile animal 
ABL. | siti turre (i) niibe sedili animali 
Plur. 

Nom. turrés nubés sedilia animalia 
GEN. turrium nibium sedilium animalium 
Dat. turribus nubibus sedilibus animalibus 
Acc, turris (6s) nibis (és)  sedilia animalia 
Voc. turrés nubés sedilia animalia 
ABL. turribus nubibus sedilibus animalibus 


53. Nouns of this class include — 


a. Nouns in -€s or -is (mostly feminine) or e (neuter) having the 
same number of syllables in the nominative and genitive(Jarzsyl/abic). 

6. Those in -er, except pater, mater, frater, accipiter. 

¢c. Neuters in -al, -ar (originally neuters of adjectives in alis, -aris) 
which have lost a final -e. 


54. Many nouns with apparently consonant-stems were 
originally i-stems or confused with them.! These are — 
1 The i-declension was confused even to the Romans, nor was it stable 


at all periods of the language, early Latin having i-forms which later 
disappeared. Nouns tended to lose the i-forms, Adjectives, to gain them. 


i 


\_ < 


24 | DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§ 55- 


? Ks Monosyllables with stem apparently ending in two consonants : 
, urbs, mOns (gen. montis), nox (gen. noctis), arx ; together 
with imber, linter, titer, venter (§ 51. 0). 

2. Stems in tat- (as civitas, -atis),! or in d or t preceded bya 
consonant (including participles used as nouns) ; also the monosylla- 
bles dos, [t faux], far, glis, lis, mas, mls, nix, [+ eh strix, vis, 


_ serobs (cf. § 50). 


3. Nouns denoting birth or abode, having stems in at-, it-, origi- 
nally adjectives: as, Arpinas, -atis (§ 164. c), with penatés and 


optimatés (§ 76. 2). 


They are thus declined : — 
Sing. city (F.). might (F.). age (F.). mouse(M.). shower(M.). 


Stem urbi- nocti- aetati- miri- imbri- 
Nom. urbs nox aetas mus imber 
GEN. urbis noctis aetatis miris imbris 
Dat. urbi nocti —_—_aetati miiri imbri 
Acc. urbem noctem aetatem miurem imbrem 
Voc. urbs nox aetas mis imber 
ABL. urbe nocte aetate mire imbre (i) 
Plur. 

Nom. urbés noctés aetatés. miurés imbrés 
GEN. urbium  noctium  aetatum (ium) mirium = imbrium 
DAT. urbibus _ noctibus aetatibus miuribus imbribus 
Acc. urbis (€s) noctis (6s) aétatis (és) miiris (6s) imbris (és) 
Voc. urbés noctés aetatés miurés imbrés 
ABL. urbibus  noctibus aetatibus muribus imbribus 


Note.— The declension of these nouns in the singular is exactly like 
that of consonant-stems, and in the plural like that of vowel-stems. 


55. Vowel-stems (real or confused) show the i of the 
stem in the following forms :— 

a. They almost all have the genitive plural in -ium, but some 
monosyllables lack it entirely. Exceptions are canis and iuvenis 
(originally consonant-stems), patrials in -As, atis and is, itis, and a 
few others occasionally for metrical reasons, or from confusion ; as, 
Arpinas, Arpinatum; Samnis, Samnitum; cladés, cladum. 


1 These, however, more commonly have the genitive plural in -um. 


ee ee ey | 
@ 1Le, AV bho. al 
8§ 56, 57-] VOWEL-STEMS. Asst},20 25 
6. All neuters have the nominative and accusative plural in -ia. 
c. The accusative plural (mM. or F.) is regularly -is. 
ad. The accusative singular (M. or F.) of a few ends in -im (§ 56). 
é. The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines 
and feminines, ends in -i (see § 57). 


56. The regular case-ending of the accusative singular 
of items (M. or F.) would be -im: as, sitis, sitim (cf. stella, 
-am; servos, -om); but in most nouns this is changed to 
-em (following the consonant declension). 


a. The accusative in -im is found exclusively — 
1. In Greek nouns and names of rivers. 
2. In buris, cucumis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis. 
3. In adverbs in -tim (being accusatives of nouns in -tis), as 
partim ; and in amussim. 
6. The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris, puppis, 
restis, turris, sectiris, sémentis, and rarely in many other words. 


57. The regular ablative singular of i-stems would end 
in -i: as, sitis, siti; but in most nouns this is changed to -e. 


a. The ablative in -i is found exclusively — 
1. In nouns having the accusative in -im (§ 56); also, sectiris. 
2. In aequalis, annalis, aqualis, cOnsularis, gentilis, molaris, 
primipilaris, tribtllis used as nouns. 
3. In neuters (whose nominative ends in -e, -al, -ar): except 
baccar, iubar, and sometimes (in verse) mare, réte. 
6. The ablative in -i is found sometimes — 
1. In avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis,! imber, navis, ovis, 
pelvis, puppis, sémentis, strigilis, turris. 
2. In affinis, bipennis, canalis, familiaris, natalis, rivalis, 
sapiens, tridéns, trirémis, vOcalis used as nouns. 
c. The ablative of famés is always famé. The defective mane 
has sometimes locative mani used as ablative. 
ad. Most names of towns in -e, — as Praeneste, Tergeste, — and 
Soracte, a mountain, have the ablative in -e. Caere has Caeréte. 
e. For canis, see § 47. ¢. 


1 Always in the formula aqua et igni interdici (§ 243. a). 


rs ¢ 


26 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [$§ 58-61. 


58. The regular Nominative plural of i-stems would end in -is, 
but this is very rarely found in nouns. The regular Accusative in 
-is is common, but not exclusively used in any word. 


_ 59. The following have -um (not -ium) in the genitive plural: 
canis, iuvenis (originally consonant-stems); ambagés, mare (once 
only, otherwise wanting), volucris; also (sometimes) apis, caedés, 
cladés, m6énsis, sédés, strués, subolés, vatés, and patrials in -as, 
-Atis ; -is, -itis; as, Arpinas, Arpinatum ; Samnis, Samnitum. 


4. Irregular Nouns. 


60. In many nouns the stem is irregularly modified in 
the nominative or other cases. Thus, — 

a. The vowel-stems gru-, st- add s in the nominative, and are 
inflected like mute-stems: griis has also a nominative gruis; stis has 
both suibus and subus in the dative and ablative plural. ‘ 

6. In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes 6 in the 
nominative (b6s, bovis). In nav- (nau-) an i is added (nfavis, -is). 
In Iév- (=Zevs) the diphthong (ou) becomes @ in Iu-piter (for 
-pater), gen. Idvis, etc. 

c. In iter, itineris (N.), iecur, iecinoris (N.), supellex, supellec- 
tilis (F.), the nominative is formed from a shorter stem, in senex, 
senis from a longer; so that these words show a mixture of two 
distinct forms. The shorter form is found in the genitive iecor-is. 

d, Of the many original s-stems, only vas, vasis (N.) (pl. vasa, 
-Orum), retains its proper form in‘the nominative. 


61. Some peculiar forms are thus declined :— 


Sing. ox,cow(C.).oldman(M. )flesh(F.). bone(N.). force(F.). swine(C.). 


N., V. bos senex caro os vis sus 
GEN. bévis _senis carnis ossis vis (rare) suis 
Dat. _ bovi seni carni ossi vi (rare) sui 
Acc. bovem senem carnem_ os vim suem 
ABL. bove sene carne osse vi sue 
Plur. cattle oy strength 
N.,A.,V. bovés senés  carnés ossa_—irvirés sués 
GEN. boum senum carnium  ossium  virium suum 


D., ABL. bdbus_  senibus carnibus ossibus viribus  siibus 
(biibus) (suibus) 


§§ 62-64.] CASE-FORMS AND GREEK FORMS. 27 


5. Case-Forms. 


62. The LocaTive form ends in the singular in -i or -e: 
as, rari, 77 the country ; Carthagini or Carthagine, at Carthage ; 
in the plural in -ibus: as, Trallibus, a¢ Tva/les. 


6. Greek Forms. 


68. Many nouns originally. Greek — mostly proper 
names — retain Greek forms of inflection. 


a. Stems in in- (i long) : delphinus, -i (M.), has also the form 
delphin, -inis; Salamis, -inis (F.), has acc. Salamina. 

4. Most stems in id- (nom. -is) often have also the forms of i-stems : 
as, tigris, -idis (-idos) or -is; acc. -idem (-ida) or -im (-in); abl. -ide 
or -i. But many, including most feminine proper names, have acc. 
-idem (-ida), abl. -ide, —not -im or -ii (These stems are irregular 
also in Greek.) 

c. Stems in on- sometimes retain -n in the nominative: as, Aga- 
memnon (or AgamemnO), -dnis, accusative -dna. 

d. Stems in ont- form the nom. in -6n: as, horiz6n, Xenoph6n; 
but a few are occasionally Latinized into Gn- (nom. -S): as, Draco, 
-Gnis. 

é. Stems in ant-, ent- have the nom. in -as, -is: as adamas, -antis; 
Simois, -entis. So a few in tnt- (contracted from oént-) have -ts: 
as, Trapezius, -Untis. Occasionally the Latin form of nominative is 
also found : as, Atlans, elephans, as well as Atlas, elephas. 

J. Many Greek nouns have gen. -6s, acc. -4; plur. nom. -és, acc. 
-4s: as, 46r, aethér, cratér, hérds (-dis), lampas (-ddis or -&dos), 
lynx (-cis or -cds), nais (-idos), Orpheus (-eos: see § 43). 

g. A few in -ys have acc. -yn, voc. -y, abl. -yé: as, chelys, -yn, 
-y; Capys, -yos, -yi, -yn, -y, -yé. 

A. Several feminine names in -6 have gen. sing. -ts, all the other 
cases ending in -6 ; they may also have regular forms : as, Did6, gen. 
Didonis or Didtis; dat. DidGni or DidG, etc. 

z. Several Greek forms are irregularly retained in the vocative : as, © 
Panthis, voc. Panthii; Orpheus, Orpheu; Atlas, Atla; Daphnis, 
Daphni; Periclés, Periclé (cf. § 43). 


64. Some of these forms are seen in the following 
examples : — 


g 


28 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [S§ 65, 66. 


Sing. hero(M.). forch(F.). base(F.). naiad(F.). tiger(C.). 


Stem hero- lampad- basi- naid- tigrid-(tigri-) 
N., V. héros lampas basis nais tigris 
GEN. hérois lampados baseds naidos tigris (idos) 
Dat. héroi lampadi basi naidi tigri 
Acc. héroa lampada basin naida tigrin (ida) 
ABL. hérde lampade basi naide tigri (ide) 
Plur. 
N., V. héroés lampadés basés naidés tigrés 


GEN. héro6um lampadum _ basium(edn) naidum _ tigrium 
D.,Ahérdibus lampadibus basibus naidibus __tigribus 
Acc. hérdas lampadas basis (@is) naidas tigris (idas) 


PROPER NAMES. 
Nom. Atlas Dido Simois Capys Daphnis 
Gen. Atlantis. / Didonis (Ws) /Simoentis Capyos , Daphnidis 
Dart. Atlanti Diddni (6) Simoenti / Capyi ,/ Daphnidi 
Acc. Atlanta Diddnem (6) Simoenta Capyn Daphnim (in) 
Voc. Atlas (a) Dido Simois Capy Daphni 
Ast. Atlante Diddne (6)  Simoente Capye Daphni 


Norte. — The regular Latin forms can be used for most of the above. — 


7. Rules of Gender. 


65. The following are general Rules for the Gender of 
nouns of the third declension, classed according to the 
termination of the nominative. 

a. Masculine endings are -6, -or, -6s, -er, -és (gen. -idis, -itis). 

6, Feminine endings are -as (gen. atis), -és (gen. -is), -is, -ys, -x, 
-s (following a consonant) ; also, -d6, -g6 (gen. -inis), -iS (abstract 
and collective), and -is (gen. Udis, -iitis). 

c. Neuter endings are -a, -e, -i, -y; -c, -l, -t; -men (gen. -minis) ; 
-ar, -ur, -tis (gen. -eris, -oris). 

Nore. — All these have exceptions. 

66. For general Rules for the Gender of nouns of the. 
third declension, classed according to their stems, see 
Allen and Greenough’s larger grammar. 


1 Dative, hérdisin (once only). 


STAT, HO CO 
§§ | FOURTH DECLENSION. 29 


67. For the Forms of Inflection of nouns of the third 
declension, classed according to their stems, see Allen 
and Greenough’s larger grammar. 


FOURTH DECLENSION. 


~ 68. The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends 
in-u-, weakened to i, before -bus. Masculine and femi- 
nine nouns form the nominative by adding -s; neuters 
have for nominative the simple stem, but with @ (long). 
Nouns of the Fourth Declension are thus declined : — 


\ 


Sing. hand (F.). lake (M.). knee (N.). 
STEM manu- lacu- genu- 
Nom. manus lacus gent 
GEN. manus lactis gent (Us) © 
Dat. manui (@) lacui (7) gent 
Acc. manum lacum genu 
Voc. manus lacus genu 
ABL. manu lact genu 
Plur. 
Nom. mants lactis genua 
GEN. manuum lacuum genuum — 
Dat. manibus ~ lacubus genibus 
Acc. manus lactis genua 
Voc. mantis lactis . genua 
ABL. manibus lacubus genibus 


~ 69. GENDER.— a. Most nouns in -us are Masculine. The fol- 
lowing are Feminine: acus, anus, colus, domus, idiis (pl.), manus, 
nurus, porticus, quinquatris (pl.), socrus, tribus, with a few names 
of plants and trees. Also, rarely, arcus, penus, specus. 
6. The only neuters are cornt, gent, pect, veri. 


70. CASE-ForMs. —a. The uncontracted form -uis (sometimes 
-uos) is sometimes found in the genitive, as senatuos; and an did 
(irregular) genitive in -i is used by some writers : as, ornati, senati. 

4. The nominative plural has rarely the form -uus. 

¢. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted into -um. 


30 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 6. ra sues 

@. The following retain the regular dative and ablative plural in 
-ibus: artus, partus, portus, tribus, vert (but sometimes portibus, 
veribus) ; also dissyllables in -cus: as, lacus. 

é. Most names of plants, and colus, distaff, have also forms of 
the second declension. 

Ff. Domus, house, has two stems, ending in u- and o- (cf. gen. in 
-I, § 70. a), and is declined as follows :1— 


SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
N., V. domus domiis 
GEN. domitis (domi, loc.) domuum (dom6drum) 
Dat. domui (domd) domibus 
Acc. domum domos (domiis) 
ABL. doms (domi) domibus 


g. The only locative form of the fourth declension is domui. 
But even this is rare, and domi is almost universally used instead. 


71. Most nouns of the fourth declension are formed from verb- 
stems, or roots, by means of the suffix -tus (-sus) (cf. § 163. 4): as, 
cantus, sovg, CAN, can, szzg. 

a. The accusative and ablative (or dative, perhaps both) of these 
nouns form the Supines of verbs (§ 109. ¢) : as, auditum, visi. 
\. b. Of many verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun : 
as, iisst (med), dy (my) command, so initsst, without orders. Of 
some only the dative : as, memoratui, divisui. 


FIFTH DECLENSION. 

72. The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends 

in 6. The nominative is formed from it by adding -s. 
These nouns are thus declined : — 


as 


SING. thing (F.) PLUR. SING. day (M.). PLUR. faith (F.). 

Stem re- die- fide- 
Nom. rés rés diés diés fidés 
GEN. réi rérum diei (dié) diérum fidéi 
Dat. réi rébus diéi (dié) diébus fidéi 
Acc. rem rés diem diés fidem 
Voc. + rés rés diés diés fidés 
ABL. re rébus die . diébus fidé 


1 The forms in parenthesis, except domi (cf. § 70. ¢), are less common. 


ia 
DEFECTIVE NOUNS. ; 


Note.— The é has been shortened in the genitive and dative singulst 
of fidés, spés, rés, but in these it is found long in early Latin. a 


§§ 73-75-] 31 


73. GENDER. — All nouns of this declension are feminine, except 
diés (usually m.), day, and meridiés (M.), zoom. Diés is sometimes 
feminine in the singular, regularly so when used of time in general : 
as, longa diés, a Jong time, cOnstitita dié, oz a set day; also in 
the poets: as, pulchra diés, a fine day. 


mi 74. CASE-FormMs.—a. The Genitive singular anciently ended in 
-6s (cf. -as of first declension, § 36. 4). The genitive ending -6i was 
sometimes contracted into -€i, -i, or oe ae ee 636), and the 
phrases plébi-scitum, tribtnus plébéi. 

“6. The fifth declension is only a variety of the first, and several 
nouns have forms of both: as, materia, -iés; saevitia, -iés. 

“Ne. The Locative of this declension ends in -€. It is found in 
certain adverbs and expressions of time: as, hodié (for hoi-dié, 
cf. huic), to-day; perendié, day after to-morrow ; dié quarto (old, 

uarti), the fourth day; pridié, the day before. 

. Of nouns of the fifth declension, diés and rés only are declined 
throughout. Most want the plural, which is found, however, in the 
nominative and accusative in the following : aciés, effigiés, Gluviés, 
faciés, glaciés, seriés, speciés, spés. 


DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 


75. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular 
number only (siugularia tantum). These are — 


1. Most proper names : as Caesar, Cesar, Gallia, Gau/. 

2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass : as, aurum, 
gold; a€r, air ; triticum, wheat. 

3. Abstract nouns: as, ambiti6, ambition ; fortitiidd, courage ; 
calor, heat. 


But many of these are used in the plural in some other 
sense. Thus,— 

a. A proper name may be applied to two or more persons or places, 
or even things, and so become strictly common: as, duodecim 


Caesarés, the twelve Cesars ; Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and Trans- 
alpine) ; Castdrés, Castor and Pollux ; lovés, images of Jupiter. 


32 - DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [$$ 76-79. 


6. Particular objects may be denoted: as, aera, bronze utensils, 
nivés, svowflakes; or different kinds of a thing: as, aeres, azrs 
(good and bad). 

c. The plural of abstract nouns denotes zzstances of the quality, 
or the like: as, quaaedam excellentiae, some cases of superiority ; 
calorés, frigora, times of heat and cold. (See also § 79. @.) 


76. Some nouns are commonly found only in the Plural 
(pliralia tantum [cf. § 79. c]). Such are — 


1. Many proper names: as, Athénae, A¢hens, Thurii, Philippi, 
Véii, names of towns, especially names of festivals and games: as, 
Olympia, the Olympic Games ; Bacchanalia, feast of Bacchus ; adi 
Romani, she Roman Games. 

2. Names of classes : as, optimatés, ‘he upper classes ; maidrés, 
ancestors ; liberi, children ; penatés, household gods. 

3. Words plural by signification: as, arma, weapons, artis, 
joints ; Aivitiae, riches; scalae, stairs; valvae, folding-doors. 


These often have a corresponding singular in some form 
or other, as noun or adjective. 


a. As noun, to denote a single object: as, Bacchanal, a spot 
sacred to Bacchus ; optimas, an aristocrat. 

b. As adjective : as, Cato Maior, Cato the Elder. 

c. In another sense : as, scala, a /adder ; artus, a joint. 


77. Many nouns are defective in case forms. For lists, 
see Allen and Greenough’s larger grammar. 


VARIABLE NOUNS. 


78. Many nouns vary either in Declension or Gender. 
For lists, see Allen and Greenough’s larger grammar. The 
dictionary gives sufficient information in each case. 


79. Many nouns have irregularities of Number either 
in their ordinary or occasional use, 


§ 80.] VARIABLE NOUNS. 33 


a. Many nouns vary in meaning in the Singular and Plural: as, — 


aedés, -is (F.), semple ; aedés, -ium, /ouse. 

aqua (F.), water; aquae, a watering-place. 

auxilium (N.), Ae/p; auxilia, auxiliaries. 

bonum (N.), @ good ; bona, property. 

carcer (N.), dungeon; carcerés, darriers (of race-course). 
castrum (N.), for? ,; castra, camp. 

comitium (N.), Alace of assembly ; comitia, an election(town meeting). 
copia (F.), Dlenty ; copiae, ¢rvoops. 

fidés (F.), harp string ; fidés, lyre. 

finis (M.), end; finés, bounds, territories. 


gratia (F.), favor (rarely, thanks); gratiae, thanks (also, the Graces). 
impedimentum (N.), Aizdrance; impedimenta, baggage. 

littera (F.), /efter (of alphabet); litterae, efzst/e. 

locus (M.), Place [pl. loca (N.)]; loci, fofics. 


ludus (M.), sport, ludi, public games. 

opera (F.), work ; operae, day-laborers (“hands”). 
[ops] opis (F.), Ae/p (§ 46) ; opés, resources, wealth. 

pars (F.), @ part; partés, art (on the stage), arty. 
rostrum (N.), beak of a ship ; rostra, speaker's platform. 

sal (M. or N.), salt, salés, w7¢ticisms. 


6. The singular of a noun usually denoting an individual is some- 
times used collectively to derfote a group: as, Poenus, ‘he Cartha- 
ginians ; miles, the soldiery ; eques, the cavalry. 

c. Of many nouns the plural is usually, but not exclusively, used : 
as, cervicés, the neck; Quirités, Romans, viscera, flesh. 

ad. The poets often use the plural for the singular for metrical 
reasons, or from a mere fashion : as, Ora (for 6s), the face; scéptra 
(for scéptrum), sceftre,; silentia (for silentium), sz/ence. 


PROPER NAMES. 


80. A Roman had regularly three names, denoting the 
person, the gens, and the family. 


a. Thus, in the name Marcus Tullius Cicerd, we have Marcus 
the praendmen, or personal name ; Tullius, the xdmen (properly an 


34 ADJECTIVES. [§ 81. 


adjective), ze. the name of the gens, or house, whose supposed orig- 
inal head was a Tullus ; Cicer6, the cégndmen,.or family name. 


Notr. — When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, 
the cognomen is usually in the plural : as Pablius et Servius Sullae. 


6. A fourth or fifth name was sometimes given. Thus the com- 
plete name of Scipio the Younger was Publius Cornélius Scipio 
Africanus Aemilianus: Africanus, from his exploits in Africa; 
Aemilianus, as adopted from the Amilian gens. 

c. Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but 
- were known only by the #dmen of their gens. Thus, the wife of 
Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. A younger daughter 
would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, and so on. 

@. The commonest prenomens are thus abbreviated : — 


A. Aulus. L. Liicius. ~ Q. Quintus. 
App. Appius. M. Marcus. Ser. Servius. 
C. (G.) Gaius (Cazus) (cf. § 6). M’. Manius. Sex. Sextus. 
Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus (Cvezus). Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius. 
D. Decimus. N. Numerius. T. Titus. 

K. Kaes6 (Caeso). P. Publius. Ti. Tiberius. 


4. ADJECTIVES. 
INFLECTION. 


Adjectives and Participles are formed and declined 
like Nouns, differing only in their use. They distinguish 
gender by different forms in the same word, and agree 
with their nouns in gender, number, and case. They are 
(1) of the First and Second Declensions, or (2) of the 
Third Declension. 


x. First and Second Declensions. 


81. Adjectives of the first and second declensions (a- and 
o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus, in the 
Feminine like stella, and in the Neuter like bellum; as, — 


§ 82.] FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 35 


bonus, good. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. : 
M. F. N. M. F. N. 

Stem bono- bona- bono- : 
Nom. bonus bona bonum boni bonae bona 
GEN. boni bonae__— boni bondrum bonarum bonodrum 
Dat. bond bonae bond bonis bonis bonis 
Acc. bonum bonam  bonum bonds bonas bona 
Voc. bone bona bonum boni bonae bona 
ABL. bond bona bons bonis bonis’ bonis 


Nore. — Stems in quo- have nominative -cus, -qua, -cum, accusative 
-cum, -quam, -cum, to avoid -quu, (see § 7). Thus, — 

Nom. relicus (-quos) reliqua relicum (-quom) 

GEN.  reliqui reliquae reliqui, etc. 


a. The masculine genitive singular of Adjectives in -ius ends in 
-ii, and the vocative in -ie ; not in -i, as in Nouns (cf. § 40. 4, ¢) : as, 
Lacedaemonius, -ii, -ie. 

82. Stems ending in ro- preceded by 6 or a consonant (also satur) 


form the masculine nominative-like noun-stems in ro- of the second 
declension (cf. puer, ager, § 38). They are thus declined :— 


Sing. miser, wretched. niger, d/ack. 

Srem misero-, a-, 0- nigre-, a-, 0- 
N. miser misera miserum niger nigra nigrum 
G. miseri miserae  miseri nigri nigrae _—inigri 
D. miserd miserae  misero nigro nigrae  nigrd 
Ac. miserum miseram miserum nigrum nigram nigrum 
V. miser misera miserum niger nigra nigrum 
Ab. miser6 misera misero nigro nigra nigrd 
Plur. 
N. miseri miserae  misera nigri nigrae nigra 
G. miserOrum miserarum miserdrum nigrorum nigrarum nigrorum 
D. miseris miseris miseris nigris nigris nigris 
Ac. miser6s _— miseras misera nigros nigras ~- nigra 
V. miseri miserae misera nigri nigrae nigra 
Ab. miseris miseris miseris _nigris nigris _—nigris 


Nore. — Which type is followed is shown by the dictionary. 
a. Stems in Gro- (as pro6cérus), with mGrigérus, propérus, have 
the regular nominative masculine in -us. 


36 


ADJECTIVES. 


[§§ 83, 84. 


83. The following o-stems with their compounds have the geni- 
tive singular in -ius (one only having -ius) and the dative in -i in all 


genders : — 

alius (N. aliud), other. totus, whole. alter, -terius, ‘he other. 
nillus, 70, none. Ullus, avy. neuter, -trius, #ezther. 
solus, alone. tnus, 07. uter, -trius, which (of two). 


Of these the singular is thus declined : — 


M. F. N. M. F. N. 
Nom. wdnus tna tnum uter utra utrum 
GEN.  inius unius  iinius utrius utrius utrius 
DaT. ini uni uni utri utri utri 
Acc. Unum = inam inum utrum utram utrum 
ABL. wand ina ino utro utra utrd 
Nom. alius alia aliud alter altera alterum 
GEN.  alius alius alius alterius lterius alterius 
Dat. alii alii alii alteri alteri alteri 
Acc. alium aliam aliud alterum lteram  alterum 
ABL.  alio alia alis alters altera alter6 


a. The plural of these words is regular, like that of bonus. 


6. The i of the genitive-ending -ius, may be short in verse. 

Instead of alius, alterius is commonly used, or in the possessive 
sense the adjective aliénus, belonging to another, another's. 

In compounds sometimes both parts are declined, sometimes only 
the latter. Thus, alteri utri or alterutri, fo one of the two. 


2. Third Declension. 


Adjectives of the third declension are of one, two, or 
three terminations. 


84. Adjectives of the third declension having stems 
in i-— distinguished by being parisyllabic (§ 53. a) — have 
but one form for both masculine and feminine, with one 
for the neuter, and hence are called adjectives of two ter- 
minations. In the neuter the nominative ends in -e. 


§ 34.] THIRD DECLENSION. = 37 


They are declined as follows : — 
lévis (stem levi-), light. 


SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
M., F. N. M., F. N. 
NV. levis leve levés levia 
GEN. levis levis levium levium 
DAT. levi levi levibus levibus 
Acc. levem leve levis (és) levia 
ABL. levi levi levibus levibus 


a. The following stems in ri- have a masc. nom. in -er; Acer, 
alacer, campester, celeber, equester, paltister, pedester, puter, 
saliber, silvester, terrester, volucer, and are called adjectives of 
three terminations. So, also, celer, celeris, celere; and names of 
months in -ber (cf. § 51. 4) : as, OctOber. 

These are declined as follows : — 


acer, een. 
Stem acri- 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
M. F. N. M. F. N. 
N., V. acer acris acre acrés acrés acria 
GEN. Acris acris acris acrium acrium acrium 
DAT. “act acri acri acribus acribus Acribus 
Acc. acrem acrem Acre acris (68) Acris (@s) acria 
ABL.  4cri acri acri acribus acribus  Aacribus 


Nore. — This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets, 
either the masculine or the feminine form was sometimes used for both 
genders: as, coetus alacris (Z.). In others, as faenebris, finebris, 
illistris, ligubris, mediocris, muliebris, there is no separate masculine 
form. Thus, — 

illistris, drz//iant. 


Stren illistri- 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
M., F. N. M., F. N. 
N., V. illustris illistre illistrés illustria 
GEN. illistris illiistris illistrium illistrium 
Dart. illistri illistri illistribus illistribus 
Acc. illistrem __illistre illistris (€s) illistria 


ABL. illistri illustri illistribus illistribus 


38 ADJECTIVES. [§ 8s. 


6. CAsE-Forms. — Adjectives of two and three terminations, 
being true i-stems, retain in the ablative singular -i, in the neuter 
plural -ia, in the genitive plural -ium, and in the accusative plural 
regularly -is. But the forms of some are doubtful. 


Nore. — An ablative in -e is sometimes found in poetry. 


c. celer, swift, as a noun, denoting a military rank, has celerum 
in the genitive plural. The name Celer has the ablative in -e. 


85. The remaining adjectives of the third declension 
are Consonant-stems ; but all except Comparatives have 
the form of i-stems in the ablative singular -i, the nomi- 
native, accusative, and vocative plural neuter -ia, and the 
genitive plural -ium. In the other cases they follow the 
rule of Consonant-stems. 


Note. — The ablative singular of these words often has -e. 


These adjectives (except comparatives) have the same nominative 
singular for all genders, and hence are called adjectives of one termina- 
tion. All except stems in 1- or r- form the nominative singular from 
the stem by adding -s. 

a. Adjectives of one termination are declined as follows : — 


atrox, fierce. egéns, needy. 
Stem atroéc- Sinise egent- 

Sing. M., F. N. M., F. N. 
N., V. atrox atrox egens egeéns 
GEN. atrocis atrocis egentis egentis 
Dat.  atroci atroci egenti egenti 
Acc. atrocem atrox egentem egéns 
ABL. atr6ci (e) atroci (e) egenti (e) egenti (e) 
Plur. 
N., V. atrocés atrocia  egentés egentia 
GEN. atr6cium atrocium egentium — egentium 
Dat. atrocibus atrocibus egentibus egentibus 
Acc. atrocis (€s) atrocia egentis (6s)  egentia 


ABL. atrocibus atrocibus egentibus egentibus 


§ 85.] THIRD DECLENSION. 39 
6. Other examples are the following : — 
concors, harmonious. iéns, going. par, egual. 
Srem concord- eunt- par- 
Sing. M., F. N. M., F. N. M., F. N. 
N., V. concors concors iéns iéns par par 
GEN. _ concordis concordis euntis euntis paris paris 
Dat. — concordi concordi eunti eunti pari pari 
Acc. concordem  concors euntem iéns parem par 
ABL. concordi concordi eunte (i) eunte (i) pari pari 
Plur. 
N., V. concordés concordia euntés euntia pares paria 
Gen. concordium concordium euntium euntium parium  parium 
D.,ABL. concordibus concordibus euntibus euntibus paribus paribus 
Acc. concordis (6s) concordia _— euntis(@s)euntia _— paris(€s) paria 
praeceps, headlong. dives, rich. Uber, fertile. 
Stem praecipit- divit- tiber- 
Sing. M., F. N. M., F. N. M., F. N. 
N., V. praeceps praeceps dives dives ber tber 
GEN. _ praecipitis praecipitis divitis divitis itiberis iiberis 
Dat. __ praecipiti praecipiti  diviti diviti uberi uberi 
Acc. praecipitem praeceps divitem dives tiberem iber 
ABL. praecipiti praecipiti divite _ divite ibere ibere 
Plur. 
N., V. praecipités praecipitia divités [ditia] tberés ibera 
GEN. [praecipitium]?* divitum divitum wuberum iberum 
D., ABL. praecipitibus praecipitibus divitibus divitibus tiberibus iberibr 
Acc. praecipitis(s) praecipitia divitis(@s)[divitia] iberés itbera 
vetus, o/d. 
Stem veter- (for vetes or vetos-) 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
M., F. N. M., F. N. 
N., V. vetus vetus veterés vetera 
GEN. veteris veteris veterum veterum 
Dat. veteri veteri veteribus veteribus 
Acc. veterem vetus veterés vetera 
ABL. vetere vetere veteribus veteribus 


1 Given by grammarians, but not found. 


40 ADJECTIVES. [§§ 86, 87. 


Nore. — Of these vetus is originally an s-stem. In most s-stems the r 
has intruded itself into the nominative also, as bi-corpor (for bi-corpos), 
dé-gener (for dé-genés). 


c. A few of these adjectives used as nouns, have a feminine form 
in -a: as, clienta, hospita, so the appellative Iund Sdspita. 


3. Comparatives. 


86. Comparatives are declined as follows :— 





melior, detter. plus, more. 
Stem melior- for melios- plir- for plis- 

Sing. - M.,F. N. M., F. N. 
N., V. melior melius —- plis 
GEN.  melioris melidris —_—- pliris 
Dat. — meliéri meli6ri —- 
Acc. melidrem melius —— plis 
ABL. _ melidre (1) melidre (i) od plire 
Plur. 
N., V.  meliorés meliora plirés plira 
GEN. melidrum melidrum plirium plirium 
Dat. _ melidribus melidribus pliribus pliribus 
Acc. melidris (6s) melidra pliris (€s) plira 
ABL. melidribus melidribus pliribus pliribus 


a. The stem of comparatives properly ended in os-; but this be- 
came or- except in the neuter singular (nom., acc., voc.), where s 
is retained, and 6 is changed to t (cf. hondr, corpus). Thus com- 
paratives appear to have two terminations. 

6. The neuter singular plis is used only asanoun. The geni- 
' tive (rarely ablative) is used as an expression of value (cf. § 252. a). 
The dative is not found in classic use. The compound complirés, 
several, has sometimes neuter plural compliiria. 

All other comparatives are declined like melior. 


4. Case-Forms. 
87. In adjectives of Consonant stems the following 
Case-forms are to be remarked : — 


a. The ablative singular commonly ends jin -i; but adjectives 
used as nouns (as superstes, suvvivor) have -e. Participles in -ns 


§ 88.] CASE-FORMS AND SPECIAL USES. 4!I 


used as such, or as nouns, regularly have -e; but when used as 
adjectives, -i. 

The following have uniformly -i: améns, anceps, concors (and 
other compounds of cor), cOnsors (but asa substantive, -e,) dégener, 
hebes, ingéns, inops, memor (and its compounds), par (in prose), 
perpes, praeceps, praepes, teres. 

6. The following have regularly -e: caeles, compos [}déses], 
dives, hospes, pauper, particeps, princeps, superstes, sOspes; also 
patrials (see § 54. 3) and stems in at-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as 
nouns, and sometimes when used as adjectives. 

c. The genitive plural ends commonly in -ium. The accusative 
plural regularly ends in -is, even in comparatives, which are less in- 
clined to the i- declension. 

ad. The genitive plural ends in -um : — 

1. Always in dives, compos, inops, particeps, princeps, praepes, 
supplex, and compounds of nouns which have -um: as, quadru-pés, 
bi-color. 

z. Sometimes, in poetry, in participles in -ns: as, silentum con- 
cilium, a council of the silent shades (Virg.). 

e. In vetus (gen. -€ris), ptbes (gen. -éris), ber (gen. -Gris), 
which did not become i-stems, the endings -e (abl. sing.), -a (neut. 
nom. acc. plur.), -um (gen. plur.) are regular. (Uber has also -i in 
abl.) 

jf. i. Several adjectives vary in declension: as, gracilis (-us), 
hilaris (-us), inermis (-us), bicolor (-Srus). 

2. A few are indeclinable: as, damnas, frigi, néquam. 

3. Several are defective : as, exspés (only nom.), exléx, exlégem 
(only nom. and acc. sing.), pernox, pernocte (only nom. and abl. 
sing.) ; primOris, séminecis, which lack the nom. sing. 


5. Special Uses. 
88. The following special uses are to be observed : — 


a. Many adjectives have the meaning and construction of nouns : 
as, amicus, a friend ; aequalis, a contemporary ; maidrés, ancestors. 
6. Many adjectives, from their signification, can be used only 
in the masculine and feminine. Such are aduléscéns, youthful; 
[t déses], -idis, s/othful,; inops, -opis, foor; sdspes, -itis, safe. 
So, senex, o/d man, and iuvenis, young man, are masculine only. 


42 ADJECTIVES. [§ 89. 


c. Many nouns may be used as adjectives: as, pedes, a footman 
or on foot: so especially nouns in -tor (M.) and -trix (F., also as N.), 
denoting the agent: as, victor exercitus, the conquering army ; 
victricia arma, victorious arms. 

d. Certain forms of many adjectives are regularly used as adverbs. 
These are the accusative and ablative of the neuter singular: as, 
multum, mult6, #uch,; and the neuter singular of comparatives : 
as, melius, de¢fer ; levius, more lightly. 


COMPARISON. 


Latin, as English, has three degrees of comparison : 
the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. 


1. Regular Comparison. 
89. The Comparative is formed by adding -ior (neuter 
-ius), the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, um) to the 
stem of the Positive, which loses its final vowel: as, — 


carus, dear (st. caro-); carior, dearer ; carissimus, dearest. 
aecus, egua/(st.aequo) ; aequior, more equal; aequissimus, most egual. 
levis, /ight (st. levi-); levior, lighter ; levissimus, /ighiest. 
felix, happy (st.félic-); f€licior, happier; f€licissimus, Aapfpzest. 
hebes, du//(st.hebet-); hebetior, du//er; hebetissimus, dz//es?. 


a. Adjectives in -er form the superlative by adding -rimus to the 
nominative. The comparative is regular: as, — 


acer, £een ; acrior, Acerrimus. 
miser, wretched ; miserior, miserrimus. 


So vetus (gen. veteris) veterrimus; and matirus, besides its 
regular superlative (matUrissimus) has a rare form mattrrimus. 

For the comparative of vetus, vetustior (from vetustus), is used. 

6. The following in -lis add -limus to the stem clipped of its vowel : 
facilis (st. facili-), difficilis, similis, dissimilis, gracilis, humilis. 
The comparative is regular : as, facilis, facilior, facillimus. 

c. Compounds in -dicus (saying), -ficus (doing), -volus (welling) 
take in comparison the forms of corresponding participles in -ns: as,— 


maledicus, s/anderous ; maledicentior, maledicentissimus. 
malevolus, sfz/efu/; malevolentior, malevolentissimus. 


§§ 90,91.] ZRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 43 


ad. Adjectives in -us preceded by a vowel rarely have forms of com- 
parison, but take the adverbs magis, more; maximé, most: as, — 


iddneus, #7, magis iddneus, maximé idoneus. 

So, also, most derivatives in -icus, -idus, -alis, -aris, -ilis, -tilus, 
-undus, -timus, -inus, -ivus, -Orus, with many compounds (as dégener, 
inops) take magis and maximé. 

é. Participles used as adjectives are regularly compared: as, — 

patiéns, Zatient,; patientior, patientissimus. 

apertus, ofen ; apertior, apertissimus. 


jy. A form of diminutive is made upon the stem of some compara- 
tives : as, grandius-culus, a /ittle larger (see § 164. a). 


AE 2. Irregular and Defective Comparison. : 
. Several adjectives have in their comparison irregu- 
lar forms : as, — 


bonus, melior, optimus, good, better, best. 


malus, péio imus, dad) worse, worst. 
rofgnus, ingior, beTinus, great, greater, greatest. 
parvus, minor, minimus, small, less, least. 

multus, plus (N.),,plirimus, much, more, most. 

multi, plurés, pliximi, waxy, more, most. 

néquam (indecl.), néquior, néquissimus, worthless. 
friigi (indecl.), frugalior, fragalissimus, useful, worthy. 
dexter, dexterior, dextimus, 07 the right, handy.” 


Note. — These irregularities arise from the use of different stems. 


91. Some Comparatives and Superlatives appear with- 
out a Positive : — 


a. The following are formed from stems not used as adjectives : — 


cis, citra (adv. on this side) : citerior, citimus, Azther, hithermost. 
in, intra (prep. 7, w7thin) : interior, in , Inner, inmost. 
prae, pro (prep. before) : prior, primus, Sormer, first. 

prope (adv. zear) : propior, proximus, zearer, next. 

ultra (adv. deyond) : Ulterior, Ultimus, farther, farthest. 


“44 ADJECTIVES. [§ 92. 


6. Of the following the positives are rare, except as nouns :— 


exterus, exterior, extrémus (extimus), ov/er, outmost. 
[inferus], inferior, infimus (imus), ower, /owest (§ 82. @). 
[posterus], posterior, postrémus (postumus), latter, last. 
[superus], superior, suprémus or summus, higher, highest. 


But the plurals exteri, foreigners; inferi, the gods below ; posteri, 
posterity ; superi, the heavenly gods, are common. 

c. From iuvenis, youth, senex, o/d man are formed itinior, 
younger, senior, older. For these minor natu and maior natu are 
sometimes used (nati being often omitted). The superlative is 
regularly expressed by minimus and maximus, with or without nati. 

d. In the following, one or other of the forms of comparison is 
vig — 

. The positive is wanting in déterior, déterrimus; Scior, 6cis- 
simus; potior, potissimus. 

2. The comparative is wanting in bellus, caesius, siesta 
(with its compounds), inclutus, invictus, invitus, novus, pius, sacer, 
vafer, vetus (§ 89. 2). 

3. The superlative is wanting in agrestis, alacer, arcanus, caecus, 
diiturnus, exilis, ingéns, iéitinus, longincus, oblicus, opimus, 
proclivis, propincus, satur, ségnis, g6rus, supinus, surdus, tacitur- 
nus, tempestivus, teres, vicinus, and in some adjectives in -ilis. 

Nore. — Many adjectives —as aureus, go/den — are from their meaning 
incapable of comparison ; but each language has its own usage. 


3. Comparison of Adverbs. 


92. The comparative of an Adverb is the neuter accusa- 
tive of the comparative of the corresponding Adjective ; 
the superlative is the Adverb in -6 formed regularly from 
the superlative of the Adjective : as, — 


care, dearly (from carus, dear) ; carius, carissimé. 

misere, wretchedly (from miser, wretched) ; miserius, miserrimé. —. 
leviter (from levis, /igh?); levius, levissimé. 

audacter (audaciter) (from audax, do/d); audacius, pai ge 
bené, we// (from bonus, good); melius, optimé. 

malé, 7// (from malus, dad); péius, pessimé. 

antiqué, azcient/y, (from anticus), antiquius, antiquissimé. 


/ 


£93.15 SIGNIFICA TION. 45 


The following are irregular or defective : — 
dit, Jong (in time); diiitius, dititissimé. 
potius, vather ; potissimum, first of all, in preference to all. 
saepe, often ; Saepius, oftener, again; saepissimé. 
satis, exough en, “aR 
secus, otherwise, secius, worse.) 
multum (multd), magis, ‘maxim’, much, more, niost. 
parum, 2o¢ enough, minus, /ess, minimé, /east. : : 


_— * 











4 4. Signification. 


98. Besides their regular signification (as in English), 
the forms of comparison are used as follows : — 


a. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of a 
quality : as, brevior, rather short ; aadacior, 700 bold. 

6. The Superlative (of eminence) may denote a very high degree 
of a quality with no distinct comparison, often strengthened by 
quam, vel, or tnus: as, maximus numerus, a very great number ; 
quam plUrimi, as many as possible ; quam maximé potest (maximé 
quam potest), as much as can be; viram unum doctissimum, ‘he 
one most learned man. a 

c. With quisque, each, the superlative has a peculiar signification. 
Thus the phrase ditissi isque means, a// the richest (each 
richest man) ; primus_quisque, all the first (each first man in his 
order).1 Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion: as, — 





sapientissimus quisque aequissimO animO moritur (Cat. Maj. 
83), the wisest men die with the greatest equanimity. 


d. A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as 
admodum, valde, very, or by per or prae in composition : as, valdé 
malus, very bad ; permagnus, very great; praealtus, very high. 

e. A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition (as, 
subrusticus, rather clownish); or by minus, zot very; minimé, not 
at all; parum, ot enough ; non satis, ot much. 


1 As in taking things one by one off a pile, each thing is uppermost when 
you take it. 











46 ADJECTIVES. [§ 94. 


NUMERALS. 


1. Cardinal and Ordinal. 


94. Cardinal numbers are the regular numbers used in 
counting. Ordinal numbers are adjectives derived from 
these to express order or place. 


Nore.— Cardinal numbers answer the question quot? ow many? 
Ordinal numbers, the question quotus ? which in order? one of how many ? 


These two series are as follows : — 


CARDINAL. 
. nus, una, unum, one. 
. duo, duae, duo, Zzwo. 
. trés, tria, three. 
. quattuor (quatuor) 
. quinque 
sex 
septem 
octo 
. novem 
Io. decem 
11. indecim 
12. duodecim 
13. tredecim (decem et trés) 
14. quattuordecim 
15. quindecim 
16. sédecim 
17. septendecim 
18. duodéviginti (octédecim) 
Ig. indéviginti (novendecim) 
20. viginti 
21. viginti inus 
(or nus et viginti) 
30. triginta 
40. quadraginta 
50. quinquaginta 
60. sexaginta 
70. septuaginta 


* 


Oo ONAN LW N & 


ROMAN 

ORDINAL. NUMERALS. 
primus, -a, -um, fst. i 
secundus (alter), second. Il. 
tertius, third. Ill. 
quartus IV. 
quintus Vv. 
sextus VI. 
septimus VI. 
octavus VIII. 
nonus IX. 
decimus 3 
tindecimus XI. 
duodecimus xl. 
tertius decimus XII. 
quartus decimus XIV. 
quintus decimus XV. 
sextus decimus XVI. 
septimus decimus XVII. 
duodévicénsimus XVIII. 
undévicénsimus XIX. 
vicénsimus (vigénsimus) XX, 
vicénsimus primus XXI. 

(anus et vicénsimus, e¢c.) 

tric€nsimus XXX, 
quadragénsimus XL. 
quinquagénsimus L 
sexagénsimus Lx. 


septuagénsimus LXX. 


§ 94-] NUMERALS. 47 


> 
CARDINAL. ORDINAL. | ROMAN NUMERALS. 
80. octoginta octogénsimus LXXx. 
go. nonaginta nonagénsimus xc, 
Ioo. centum centénsimus <. 
IoI. centum (et) inus, efc. centénsimus primus, éfc. cl. 
200. ducenti, -ae, -a ‘ducenténsimus CC. 
300. trecenti trecenténsimus ccc. 
400. quadringenti quadringenténsimus CECE, 
500. quingenti quingenténsimus IQ, OY D. 
600. sexcenti (séscenti) sexcenténsimus DC. 
700. septingenti septingenténsimus Dcc. 
800. octingenti octingenténsimus DCCC. 
goo. nongenti nongenténsimus DCCCC. 
1000. mille millénsimus CID, or M. 
5000. quinque milia (millia) | quinquiéns millénsimus 199. 
10,000. decem milia (millia) deciéns millénsimus CCI99. 
100,000. centum milia (millia) centiéns millénsimus CCCIDDD. 


Notre.— The forms in -énsimus are often written without the n: as, 
vicésimus, etc. 


a. For the inflection of tinus, see § 83. It often has the meaning 
of same or only. “The plural is used in this sense ; but also, as a 
simple numeral, with a plural noun of a singular meaning: as, tina 
castra, one camp (cf. § 95. 4). The plural occurs also in the phrase 
Gini et alteri, ove party and the other (the ones and the others). 

b. Duo, two, and amb6, Jo¢h, are thus declined : — 


Nom. duo duae duo 
GEN. dudrum duarum dudrum 
DAT. dudbus duabus dudbus 
Acc. duds (duo) duas duo 
ABL. dudbus duabus dudbus 


c. Trés, tria, three, is an i-stem, and is regularly declined like the 
plural of levis (see § 84). The other cardinal numbers, up to cen- 
tum (100), are indeclinable. 

The forms oct6decim, novendecim are rare, duodéviginti, tin- 
déviginti being used instead. Similar forms for higher numbers are 
occasionally found: as, duddéquadraginta, thirty-eight ; Undécen- 
tum, 2inety-nine. ' : 


48 ADJECTIVES. [§ 95- 


* 

ad. The hundreds, up to 1000, are o-stems, and are regularly de- 
clined like the plural of bonus. 

é. Mille, a thousand, is in the singular an indeclinable adjective. 
In the plural (milia or millia, thousands), it is a neuter noun, followed 
by a genitive plural. Thus, cum mille hominibus, w7th a thousand 
men, but cum dudbus milibus hominum, with two thousand men. 


Nore. — The singular mille is sometimes found as a noun in the nomi- 
native and accusative : as mille hominum misit; rarely in the other cases. 


jf. The ordinals are o-stems, and are declined like bonus. 


2. Distributives. 
95. Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural 
of bonus. 


Note. — These answer the question quoténi ? ow many of each, or ata 
time? as, — 


I. singuli, ome dy one. 18. octdni déni or 100. centéni 

2, bini, ‘wo-and-two. duodévicéni 200. ducéni 

3. terni, trini 1g. novéni déni or 300. trecéni 

4. quaterni undévicéni 400. quadringéni 
5. quini 20. vicéni 500. quingéni 

6. séni : 21. vicéni singuli, e¢c. 600. séscéni 

7. septéni 30. tricéni 700. septingéni 
8. octoni 40. quadragéni 800. octingéni 
g. noveni 50. quinquagéni goo. nongéni 

1o. déni 60. sexagéni 1000. milléni 

11. tindéni 70. septuagéni 2000. bina milia 
12. duodéni 80. octogéni 10,000. déna milia 
13. terni déni, eéc. go. nonagéni 100,000. centéna milia 


Distributives are used as follows : — 


a. In the sense of so many apiece or on each side: as, singula 
singulis, oxe apiece (one each to each one) ; agri septéna itigera 
plébi divisa sunt, 7.c. seven jugera to each citizen, etc. 

6. Instead of cardinals, to express simple number, with a noun 
plural in form but singular in meaning : as, bina castra, ‘wo camps 
(dud castra would mean ‘wo forts). But the plural tni is used 
(instead of singuli) to signify ove (see § 94. a), and trini (not terni) 
for three. 


§§ 96, 97-] NUMERAL ADVERBS. 49 


c. In multiplication : as, bis bina, ¢wzce two; ter septénis diébus, 
in thrice seven days. 

d. By the poets freely instead of cardinals, particularly where 
pairs or sets are meant: as, bina hastilia swo shafts (two ina set). 


3. Numeral Adverbs. 


96. The Numeral Adverbs answer the question quotiéns (quotiés), 
how many times, how often. 


1. semel, once. 12. duodeciéns 40. quadragiéns 
2. bis, fwece. 13. terdeciéns 50. quinquagiéns 
3. ter, thrice. 14. quaterdeciéns 60. sexagiéns 

4. quater 15. quindeciéns 70. septuagiéns 
5. quinquiéns (-és) 16. sédeciéns 80. octdgiéns 

6. sexiéns (-és) 17. septiésdeciéns go. nonagiéns 

7. septiéns (-és) 18. duodéviciéns Too. centiéns 

8. octiéns Ig. undéviciéns 200. ducentiéns 
g. noviéns 20. viciéns 300. trecentiéns 
Io. deciéns _ 21. semel et viciéns, efc. tooo. miliéns 

11. tindeciéns 30. triciéns 10,000. deciéns miliéns 


Nore. — They are used, in combination with mille, to express the higher 
numbers : as, ter et triciéns (centéna milia) séstertiiim, 3,300,000 sesterces. 
Forms in -ns are often written without the n: as, quinquiés. 


, 4. Other Numerals. 

97. The adjectives simplex, single, duplex, double, two-fold, 
triplex, quadru-, quincu-, septem-, decem-, centu-, s€squi- (14), 
multi-plex, manifold, are called Multiplicatives. 

a. PROPORTIONALS are: duplus, triplus, etc., ¢wice as great, etc. 

6. TEMPORALS: bimus, trimus, of fwo or three years’ age; 
biennis, triennis, /asting two or three years; biméstris, of two 
months ; biduum, biennium, a period of two days or years. 

c. PARTITIVES: binarius, ternarius, of ¢wo or three parts. 

@. FRACTIONS : Gimidia pars, a half, tertia pars, a third. 


Nore. — But fractions are regularly expressed by special words denoting 
the parts of the as ( pownd or unit): as, triéns, a third ; bés, two-thirds. 

e. Other derivatives are : Wnid, wxzzty ; binid, the two (of dice) ; 
primanus, of the first legion ; primarius, of the first rank ; dénarius, 
a sum of Io asses ; binus (distributive), doudle, etc. 


50 PRONOUNS. [§ 98. 


5. PRONOUNS. 


98. Pronouns have special forms of declension. 


1. Personal Pronouns. 


The Personal pronouns of the first person are ego, /, nds, we, of 
the second person, tu, thou, vOs, ye or you. 


FIRST PERSON. 





Nom. ego, /. nos, we. 

GEN. mei, of me. nostrim (-tri), of us. 
Dat. mihi (mi), fo me. nOdbis, fo us. 

ACC. mé, e. nos, ws. 

Voc. — 

ABL. mé, dy me. nobis, dy us. 


SECOND PERSON. 


Nom. tt, thou or you. vos, yé or you. 


GEN. tui, vostrim, vostri ; vestriim (-tri) 
Dat. tibi vobis 
Acc. te vos 


Voc. tt vos” 
ABL. te vobis 





a. The personal pronouns of the third person — he, she, it, they — 
are wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being used for them when 
required. 

6. The plural n6s is often used for the singular ego; the plural 
vos never for the singular tt. 


2. Reflexive Pronouns. 


Reflexive pronouns are used in the Oblique Cases to refer to the 
Subject of the sentence or clause (see § 196). 

a. Inthe first and second persons the oblique cases of the Personal 
pronouns are used as Reflexives : as, té laudas, you praise yourself ; 
nobis persuadémus, we persuade ourselves. 


§ 99.] POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. SI 


b. The reflexive pronoun of the Third Person has a special form, 
the same for both singular and plural. It is thus declined : — 


GEN. sul, of himself, herself, themselves. 
Dat. sibi, to himself, herself, themselves. 
Acc. sé (sésé), Aimself, herself, themselves. 
ABL. sé (sésé), dy (etc.) himself, herself, then 








3. Possessive Pronouns. 


The Possessive pronouns are, for the first person: 20 
noster, ovr; for the second person : tuus, thy, your, voster, vester, 
your, for the third person: suus, Azs, her, their. These are de- 
clined like adjectives of the first and second declensions (see §§ 81, 
82). But meus has regularly mi (rarely meus) in the vocative 

\ singular masculine. | 











Nore. — Suus is always reflexive, referring to the subject. For a pos- 
sessive pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive 
of a demonstrative must be used. Thus, patrem suum occidit, Ze hilled his 
(own) father; but patrem éius occidit, he killed his (somebody else’s) father. 


AT 99. In the meaning and use of the Personal, Reflexive, 
and Possessive pronouns it is to be observed that — 


a. To express Possession and similar ideas the possessive pro- 
nouns must be_psed, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive 


pronouns. Tlfus, my is pater me ter mei. 
ee awn 
6. The forms nostrim, vostrum, etc., are used partifively : as, — 





Unusquisque nostriim, cach one of us ; 
but also vostrim omnium, of a// of you. 





c. The genitives mej, ae sui, nostri, vestri are chiefly used od- 
jectively (see § 213. N.) : as,— ve Bh 
memor sis nostri, be mindful of us (me). 
mé tui pudet, 7 am ashamed of you. 
d. The reciprocals one e another and each other are expressed by 
inter sé or alter . . . alterum : as, — 


alter alterius Ova bate they break each other's eggs (one... 
of the other). 
inter sé amant, they love one another. 


52 PRONOUNS. [§§ 100, 1or. 


e. The preposition c with, is joined with the ablative of the 
personal and reflexive pronouns : as, tecum loquitur, he ‘a/ks with 
you. a 

jf. To the personal and reflexive (and sometimes to the possessive) 
pronouns certain enclitics are joined for emphasis: -met. to all 
except ti (nom.) ; -te to tu (ttite, also tiltimet) ; -pte to the ablative 
singular of the adjectives, and in early Latin to the others, as, — 


vosmetipsos proditis, you betray your own very selves. 


suopte pondere, dy tts own weight. ae 


4. Demonstrative Chodns. 


100. The Demonstrative pronouns are hic, skis; is, ille, iste, 
that, with the Intensive ipse, se/f, and idem, same. 

a. Ile is a later form of ollus (olle), which is sometimes used 
in poetry ; a genitive singular in -i, -ae, -i occurs in ille and iste. 

6. Hic is compounded of the stem ho- with the demonstrative -ce. 
In most of the forms final e is dropped, in some the whole termina- 
tion. But in these latter it is sometimes retained for emphasis ; as, 
hilius-ce, his-ce. Idem is the demonstrative is with the affix -dem. 


101. The demonstratives are used either with nouns 
as Adjectives, or a/ove as Pronouns. From their signifi- 
cation they cannot (except ipse) have a vocative. They 
are thus declined : — 


hic, zhzs. is, that. 
Sing. mM. F. N. M. F. Ns 
Nom. hic haec hoc is ea id 
GEN. hiius hiius hitius éius éius éius 
DAT. huic huic huic el el ei 
Acc. hune hanc hdc eum eam id 
ABL. h6c hac hoc eo ea eo 
Plur. : 
Nom. hi hae haec i(ei) eae ea 
GEN. horum harum = hodrum eorum earum eorum 
Dat. his -his his eis (is) eis (is) eis (is) 
Acc. hos has haec eds eas ea 


ABL. his his his eis (is) eis (is) eis (is) 


§ ro1.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 53 








Sing. ille, that. ipse, self. 

Nom. ille illa illud ipse ipsa ipsum 
GEN. illius illius  illius ipsius ipsius ipsius 
Dat. ili illi illi ipsi ipsi ipsi 
Acc. illum illam illud ipsum ipsam ipsum 
Voc. —— — — ipse ipsa ipsum 
ABL. illd ila _ illo ipso ipsa ipso 
Plur. : 

Nom. ili illae illa ipsi ipsae ipsa 
GEN. ilorum illarum ill6rum ipsoOrum ipsarum ipsorum 
Dat. illis illis illis ipsis ipsis § ipsis 
Acc. illds illas illa ipsos ipsas ipsa 
Voc. — ipsi ipsae ipsa 
ABL. illis illis illis ipsis ipsis ipsis 


idem, the same. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 


N. idem eadem idem dem (ei-) eaedem eaddem 
G. @Giusdem Giusdem Giusdem | ieOrundem earundem edrundem 
D. eidem eidem eidem | eisdem(is-) eisdem(is-) cisdem(is-) 
Ac. eundem eandem idem eOsdem easdem eadem 
AB. eOdem eadem eddem eisdem(is-) eisdem(is-) eisdem(is-) 
iste, ista, istud, at (yonder), is declined like ille. 
Ille and iste are combined with the demonstrative -ce. Thus, — 
Sing. M. F. N. M. F. N. 
Nom. illic. illaec ill6c (illic) istic istaec istdc (isttic) 
Acc.  illune illane ill6c (illic)  istune istanc  istdc (istiic) 


ABL. ill6c illac illdc istOc istac istoc 
Plur. : 
N.,Acc. ——— ———__ illaec SE eS istae 


Note. — This appended -ce is also found with pronouns in ‘nunferous 
combinations: as, hiiusce, hunce, hdrunce, harunce, hésce, hisce (cf. § 100. 4), 
illiusce, isce; also with the interrogative -ne, in hécine, héscine, isticine, 
illicine, etc. Theintensive -pse is found in the forms eapse (nom.), eumpse, 
eampse, edpse, eapse (abl.). , e 

a. The combinations htiusmodi (hiiuscemodi), Giusmodi, etc., - 
are used as indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to talis, such. as, rés 
Giusmodi, such a thing (a thing of that sort ; cf. § 215). 


* 


54 PRONOUNS. [$§ 102, 103. 


102. In the use of these demonstratives it is to be 
observed that — 


a. Hic is used of what is xear the speaker (in time, place, thought, 

or on the written page). It is sometimes used of the speaker him- 

~ self ; sometimes for “ the latter’ of two persons or things mentioned 

in speech or writing ; more rarely for “the former,” when that, though 

more remote on the written page, is nearer the speaker in me, place, 
or thought. 

6. Ille is used of what is remoze (in time, etc.). It is sometimes 
used to mean “the former” (see under hic, a); also (usually fol- 
lowing its noun) of what is famous or well-known. 

c. Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness : 
often in allusion to the person addressed, — hence called the demon- 
strative of the second person. It especially refers to an opponent, 
and frequently implies a kind of antagonism or contempt. 

@. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and does not 
denote any special object, but refers to one just mentioned, or to be 
afterwards explained by a relative. It is used oftener than the 
others as a personal pronoun ; and is often merely a correlative to 
the relative qui: as, eum quem, oe whom; eum coOnsulem qui non 
dubitet (Cic.), a consul who will not hesitate. 

é. Ipse may be used with a personal pronoun of either person, or 
a noun: as nds ipsi (nOsmetipsi), we ourselves ; ipsi fontés, the very 
fountains ; also independently (the verb or the context implying the 
pronoun), as ipsi adestis, you are yourselves present. 


Note. — In English, the pronouns imse/f, etc., are used both inten- 
sively (as, he will come himself) and reflexively (as, he will kill himself) : 
in Latin the former would be ipse; the latter, sé or sésé. 


Jf. The pronouns hic, ille, and is are used to point in either direc- 
tion, back to something mentioned or forward to something to be 
mentioned. The neuter forms are used to refer to a clause, phrase, 
or idea: as, est illud quidem vel maximum animum vidére (Tusc. 
i, 22, 52), that is in truth a very great thing, to see the soul. 


of, 5. Relative Pronouns. 
/ Os The relative pronoun qui, who, which, is thus de- 
clined: — 


[/ 


§ 104.] SY INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 55 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. qui quae quod qui quae quae 

GEN. clius clUius clius quorum quarum quorum 

DAT. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus 

Acc. quem quam quod quos quas quae 

ABL, quod qua quo quibus quibus quibus 


—r 


104. The interrogative or indefinite quis (qui), who ? 
which ? any, is declined in the singular as follows: — 


6. Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns. 


Nom. quis (qui) quae quid (quod) 
GEN. ctiius ¥ __cilius cilius 

Dat. cui cui cui 

Acc. quem quam quid (quod) 
ABL. quo qua quo 


The plural is the same as that of the Relative. The singular quis 
is rare as an indefinite (see § 105. 2). 


NoTrEe.— The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns are 
originally of the same Stem, and most of the forms are the same. 


CASE-Forms. —a. Therelative has always qui, quae, quod. The 
interrogative and indefinite have quis, quae, quid, substantive, and 
qui, quae, quod, adjective :. as, quis vocat ? who calls? quid vidés ? 
what do you see? qui homd vocat? what man calls? quod tem- 
plum vidés ? what temple do you see? 


Norte. — But qui is often used without any apparent adjective force; 
and quis is very common as an adjective, especially with words denoting a 
person: as, qui ndminat mé? who calls my name ? quis diés fuit? what day 
was it? quis homo? what man? but often qui hom6? wat sort of a man ? 
nescid qui sis, 7 know not who you are. 


6. Old forms for the genitive and dative are qudius, quoi. 

c. The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all 
genders ; but especially as an adverb (how, by which way, in any 
way), and in the combination quicum, with whom, as an pvahin. > 
tive or an indefinite relative. 

d. A dative and ablative plur. quis is old, but not infrequent. 

e. The preposition cum is joined to all forms of the ablative, as 
with the personal pronouns: as, qu6cum, quicum, quibuscum. 


56 PRONOUNS. [§ 105. 


jf. The accusative form quom, cum (stem quo-) is used only as a 
conjunctive adverb, meaning when or since. 
g. The adjective uter is used as an interrogative and indefinite 
relative. For its peculiar declension, see § 83. 
Ls a 


Po 


“405. ‘The pronouns quis and qui appear in various com- 
. . S. 





a. The adverb -cumque (-cunque) with the relative makes an 
indefinite relative, declined like the simple word: as, quicumque, 
quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever ; caiuscunque, etc. 


Note. — This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with any 
relative : as, qualiscumque, of whatever sort; quanddcumque (also rarely 
quanddque), whenever ; ubicumque, wherever. 


6. The interrogative form doubled makes an indefinite relative: as, 
quisquis, whoever (so utut, however, ubiubi, wherever). Of quis- 
quis both parts are declined, but the feminine is wanting in classic 
use : thus — 


Sing. Nom. quisquis (quiqui) quidquid (quicquid) 
Acc. quemquem quidquid (quicquid) 
ABL. quoguo) §=quaqua quodqud 


Plur. Nom. = quiqui 
D., ABL. quibusquibus 


c. Indefinite compounds are: quidam, a, a certain; quispiam, 
any ; quivis, quilibet, any you please; quisquam, any at.all. Of 
these the former part is declined like quis and qui, but all have 
both quod (adjective) and quid (substantive) in the neuter. 

d. The indefinite quis, otherwise rare, is found in the compound 
aliquis, sove one, and the combinations si quis, 7 azy ; né quis, /est 
any, that none ; ecquis, num quis, whether any, and a few others. 

These are declined like quis, but have generally qua instead of 
quae, except in the nominative plural feminine. The forms aliquae, 
ecquae, nominative singular feminine, occur rarely. 


NoTE. — The compounds quispiam, aliquis, and quisquam are often used 
instead of quis with si, né, and num, and are rather more emphatic, as si 
quis, if any one, si aliquis, if some one, si quisquam, if amy one (ever, cf. h). 


§ 105.] INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 57 


These compounds are thus declined: — 


Sing. aliquis, so7ze. 

Nom. aliquis (aliqui) aliqua aliquid (aliquod) 
GEN. alictliius alictiius alictiius 

Dat. alicui alicui alicui 

Acc. aliquem aliquam aliquid (aliquod) 
ABL. aliqus aliqua aliqud 

Plur. 

Nom. aliqui aliquae aliqua 

GEN. aliquorum aliquarum aliquorum 

D., ABL. aliquibus aliquibus aliquibus 

Acc. aliquos aliquas aliqua 


The forms in -qui and -quod are adjective; those in -quis and 
-quid, substantive : as, aliquod bonum, some good thing ; but aliquid 
boni, something good (something of good). 

é. The enclitic particle que added to the interrogative gives a uni- 


versal: as, Quisque, every one, uterque, ezther_of two, or doth. In 
this combination quis is declined regularly. X 


In the compound tnusquisque, every siug/one, both parts are 
declined, and they are sometimes separated by other words. 

Quotus quisque has the signification how many, pray ? oftenin a 
disparaging sense. 

yj. The relative and interrogative have a possessive adjective ctlius 
(-a, -um), whose ; and a patrial cUiias (ctliatis), of what country. 


adjectives from the interrogative. Théy are either interrogative or 
relative, corresponding to the demonstratives tantus, talis. 

A. Quisquam, with _illus, any, unquam, ever, usquam, anywhere, 
are used only in negative sentences, or where theré is an implied 
negative (as in interrogative or conditional sentences, or after quam, 
than ; sine, without ; vix, scarcely): as, nec quisquam ex agmine 
tants, and nobody from that great throng; si quisquam est timidus, 
is ego sum, z/ any one ts timorous, 1 am the man; sine W116 domino, 
without any master. 

7. Quisnam is emphatic: pray who? ecquis and numquis are 
compounded from the indefinite particle 6n and the iitérrogative num ; 
they mean not who, but any. in_a question : as, ecquis nds videt? 


Pere Daas 


does any one see us? num quid hdc dubitas, do you at all doubt this ?2\ 


. 


58 PRONOUNS. [§§ 106, 107. 


7. Correlatives. 


106. Many pronouns, pronominal adjectives, and ad- 
verbs have corresponding demonstrative, relative, interrog- 
ative and indefinite forms. Such parallel forms are called 
CorRRELATIVES. They are shown in the following table :— 





DEMONSTR. RELATIVE. INTERROG. INDEF. RELATIVE.  INDEF. 
is, that, he qui, who quis? who? quisquis, whoever aliquis, — 
tantus, so great qQuantus quantus? (quantuscumque) aliquantus 
talis, such qualis qualis? (qualiscumque) 
ibi, there ubi ubi ? ubiubi alicubi 
ed, thither quo quo? . quoqus aliquo 
ea, that way qua qua ? quaqua aliqua 
inde, thence unde unde ? (undecumque) alicunde 
tum, then quom, cum quand6? , (cumcumque) aliquands 
tot, so many quot quot? . quotquot aliquot 


totiés, so often quotiés quotiés ? (quotiéscumque) aliquotiés 


a. The forms tot so many, quot, how (as) many, aliquot, severad, 
totidem, as many, are indeclinable, and may take any gender or 
case: as, per tot ann6ds, tot proeliis, tot imperatorés (Cic.), so many 
commanders, for so many years, in so many battles. 

6. The relative word in a pair of correlatives is often to be rendered 
simply as: thus, tantum argenti quantum aeris, as much (of) silver 
as (of) copper. 

c. A frequent form of correlative is found in the ablative qué or 
quanto, dy how much; eG or tanto, dy so much, used with compara- 
tives (rendered in English ¢he .. . the): as, — 

quo magis conaris, ed longius progrederis, the more you try, 

the farther on you get. 


107. Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are 
used correlatively as conjunctions: as, — 

ut (rel.) ... ita, sic (dem.), as (while)... so (yet). 

tam (dem.) ... quam (rel.), so (as)... as. 

cum (rel.)... tum (dem.), doth... and; while... so also; not 
only... but adso. 

Compare et... et, doth... and; aut (vel)... aut (vel), ecther 
...0r,; sive (seu)... sive; utrum... an, whether... or. 


§§ 108-110.] INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 59 


6. VERBS. 


I, INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 
1. Voice, Mood, Tense. 


108. The inflection of the Verb denotes Voice, Mood, 
Tense, Number, and Person. 


a. The VOICES are two: Active and Passive. 

6. The Moons are four : Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and 
Infinitive. 

c. The TENSES are six, viz. : — 


1. For continued action, Present, Imperfect, Future. 
2. For completed action, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect. 


d@. PERSON and NUMBER. — There are separate terminations for 
each of the three PERSons, — First, Second, and Third, — both in the 
singular and in the plural. 


2. Noun and Adjective Forms. 


109. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also 
included in the inflection of the Latin Verb :— 


a. FOUR PARTICIPLES, viz. : — 


Active: the Present and Future Participles. 
Passive: the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive. 

4. The GERUND : this is in form a neuter noun of the second declen- 
sion, used only in the oblique cases of the singular. A corresponding 
nominative is supplied by the Infinitive (see § 114. note). 

c. The SUPINE: see §§ 71. a and 114. 4. 


3. Defective Forms. 


110. Special forms for some of the tenses are wanting 
in certain parts of the verb :— 


a. The Subjunctive mood wants the Future and the Future Perfect. 

6. In the Passive voice in all moods the tenses of completed action 
are supplied by the Perfect Participle with the present, imperfect, and 
future of the verb esse, TO BE: as, occisus est, he was killed. 


60 VERBS. [§§ 111, 112. 


c. The Imperative mood has only the Present and the Future. 

d. In the Infinitive mood the Present (active and passive) and 
the Perfect (active) only are formed by inflection. A Future in the 
active voice is formed by the Future Participle with the infinitive 
-esse TO BE: as, amatirus esse, Zo de going to love ; in the passive, by 
the Former Supine with iri (infin. pass. of ire, ¢o go): as, amatum 
iri, £0 be about to be loved. For the Perfect passive, see 4 above. 


II. SIGNIFICATION OF THE FORMS OF THE VERB. 
1. Voices. 


111. The Active and Passive Voices in Latin generally 
correspond to the active and passive in English ; but — 


a. The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning: as, induitur 
vestem, he puts on his (own) clothes ; vertitur, he turns (himself). 

6. Many verbs are used only in the passive form, but with an active 
or reflexive meaning. These are called DEPONENTS (dépdnentia), Z.e. 
verbs which have laid aside (dépdmnere) the active form and the 
passive meaning (see § 135). 

c. Three verbs have a passive form in the tenses of completed 
action : auded, ausus sum ; gaudeo, gavisus sum; fido, fisus sum. 


2. Moods. 
112. The Moods are used as follows : — 


a. The Indicative is used for direct assertions and interrogations : 
as, valésne? valed, ave you well? I am well; and also in some 
other idiomatic forms of predication. 

6. The Subjunctive has many uses, as in commands, conditions, 
and various dependent clauses. It is often translated by the Indica- 
tive; often with the auxiliaries may, might, would, should; often by 
the Infinitive ; or by the Imperative. Thus,— 


eamus, /et us go. 

cum vénisset, when he had come. 

adsum ut videam, / am here to see (that I may see). 

tu né quaesieris, do not thou inguire. 

némo est qui ita existimet, ‘here 7s no one who thinks so. 
beatus sis, way you be blessed. 


§ 113.] MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 61 


né abeat, det him not depart. 

quid morer, why should I delay ? 

sunt qui putent, there are some who think. 

imperat ut scribam, he orders me to write (that I write). 

nescio quid scribam, / know not what to write. 

licet eas, you may go (it is permitted that you go). 

cave cadas, don’t fall. 

vereor né eat, / fear he will go. 

vereor ut eat, / fear he will not go. 

si moneam audiat (pres.), 76 / should warn, he would hear. 

si vocarem audiret (imperf.), 7f 7 were (now) calling, he would 

hear. 

c. The IMPERATIVE is used for exhortation, entreaty, or com- 
mand; but the Subjunctive is often used instead. 

d. The INFINITIVE is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the 
subject or object of another verb. In special uses it takes the place 
of the Indicative, and may be translated by that mood. 


' Norte. — For the Syntax of the Moods, see §§ 264 ff. 


3. Participles. 
113. The Participles are used as follows : — 


a. The Present participle (ending in -ns) has commonly the same 
meaning as the English participle in -ING: as, vocans, calling ; 
legentés, reading. (For its inflection, see egéns, § 85.) 

6. 1. The Future participle (ending in -trus) is oftenest used to 
express what is /zkely or about to happen. 


Nore. — With the tenses of esse, TO BE, it forms the First Periphrastic 
conjugation : as, urbs est casiira, the city is about to fall. 


2. It is also used, more rarely, to express purpose (see § 293. 0) : 
as, vénit audittrus, Ze came to hear (about to hear). 

c. The Perfect participle (ending in -tus, -sus) has two uses : — 

1. It is sometimes equivalent to the English Perfect Passive parti- 
ciple in -ED : as, téctus, sheltered; acceptus, accepted ; ictus, hav- 
ing been struck; and often has simply an adjective meaning : as, 
acceptus, acceptable. 

2. It is also used to form certain tenses of the passive (§ IIo. 4): 
as, vocatus est, 4e was (has been) called. 


62 VERBS. [§ 114. 


Nore. — There is no Perfect Active or Present Passive participle in 
Latin. The perfect participle of deponents, however, is generally used in 
an active sense: as, seciitus, having followed. In the case of other verbs 
some different construction is used for these missing participles : as, cum 
vénisset, having come (when he had come); equitati praemiss6, having sent 
forward the cavalry (the cavalry having been sent forward) ; dum verbe- 
ratur, while he is (being) struck. 

d. 1. The Gerundive (ending in -ndus) is often used as an ad- 
‘jective implying obligation or necessity (ought or mus?): as, audi- 
endus est, he must be heard. 

NoTeE.— With the tenses of esse, TO BE, it forms the Second Periphrastic 
conjugation ; as, déligendus erat, he ought to have been chosen. 

2, In the oblique cases the Gerundive commonly has the same 
meaning as the Gerund (cf. § 114. a), though its construction is dif- 
ferent. (For examples, see §§ 295 ff.) 

e. The Participles may all be used as simple adjectives ; and the 
present and perfect are sometimes compared: as am&ns, amantior, 
more fond; diléctus, diléctissimus, dearest. 

jf. The Present and Perfect participles are (like adjectives) often 
used as nouns: as, regentés, rwz/ers ; mortui, the dead. 

g. As an adjective, the participle is often used predicatively to 
indicate some special circumstance or situation: as, moritiri vos 
salitamus, we at the point of death (about to die) salute you. 


4. Gerund and Supine. 


114. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows :— 

a. The GERUND is, in form, the neuter singular of the Gerundive. 
It is a verbal noun, corresponding in meaning to the English verbal 
noun in -ING (§ 295): as, loquendi causa, for the sake of speaking. 

Note.— The Gerund is found only in the oblique cases. A corres- 
ponding nominative is supplied by the Infinitive: thus, scribere est itile, 
writing (to write) zs useful ; but, ars scribendi, the art of writing. 

6. The SuPINE is in form a noun of the fourth declension (§ 71. @), 
found only in the accusative, ending in -tum, -sum, and the ablative 
(or dative, probably both), ending in -tt, -st. These are sometimes 
called the Former and the Latter Supine. The Former is used after 
verbs and the Latter after adjectives ($$ 302, 303) : as, — 


I. vénit spectatum, he came fo see. 
2. mirabile dictt, wonderful to tell. 


§ 115.] TENSES. 63 


5. Tenses. 


115. The tenses of the verb are of two classes, viz.: — 


1. Of continued action. 


I. PRESENT: serib6, J am writing. 
2. IMPERFECT: scribébam, / was writing. 
3. FUTURE: scribam, J shall write. 


2. Of completed action. 


4. PERFECT : scripsi, / have written, I wrote. 
. PLUPERFECT ; scripseram, / had written. 
. FUTURE PERFECT: scripser6, J shall have written. 


Amn 


a. Tenses of the Indicative. 


a. The tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same mean- 
ing as the corresponding tenses in English ; but are in some cases 
distinguished differently in their use. Thus, — 

1. The Future or Future Perfect is often used in subordinate 
clauses, where the English uses the Present: as, — 

81 quid habébo dabé, z/ / have (shall have) anything, [ will give. 

cum véner6 scribam, when / come (shall have come), / w7/l write. 

2. The Present and Imperfect are often used to express continued 
action where the Engiish uses tenses of completed action: as, — 

iam dit aegroto, / have long been (and still am) sick. 

iam dit aegrotabam, / had long been (and still was) sick. 

Nore. — Here the Perfect, aegrétavi, would imply that I am now well ; 
the Pluperfect, that I was well at the past time designated. 

6. The Imperfect is used to describe in past time a continued 
action or a condition of things: as, scribébat, he was writing; 
ardébat, zt was on fire. 

c. The Perfect, having two separate uses, is divided into the Per- 
fect Definite and the Perfect Historical (or Indefinite). 

1. The Perfect Definite represents the action of the verb as com- 
pleted in present time, and corresponds to the English (present- or 
compound-) perfect : as, scripsi, 7 have written. 

2. The Perfect Historical zarrates a simple act or state in past 
time without representing it as in progress. It corresponds to the 
English past or preterite : as, scripsit, he wrode ; arsit, zt blazed up. 


64 


VERBS. 


6. Tenses of the Subjunctive. 

d. The tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are chiefly used in depen- 
dent clauses, following the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (see § 286) ; 
' but have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax). 


Ill. 


PERSONAL ENDINGS. 


[§§ 116-118. 


116. Verbs have regular terminations for each of the 
three Persons, both singular and plural, active and pas- 
These are called Personal endings. 


sive. 


IV. FORMS OF THE VERB. 


117. Every Latin verb-form (except the adjective and 


noun forms) is made up of two parts, viz. : — 


1. The Stem. This is either the root or a modification of it. 
2. The ENDING, consisting of — 


wn, 


a. the signs of mood and tense. 
6. the personal ending (see § 116). 


118. The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs 


for mood and tense combined with personal endings, are 
exhibited in the following table : 
ACTIVE. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


INDIC. 


Vowel-Change: 
t1to2; u. to ea; 
Ill. to Z@; Iv. to 7a. 


-ba-m 

. -ba-s 

. -ba-t 
-ba-mus 
. -ba-tis 
. -ba-nt 


A 





-re-m 
-ré-s 
-re-t 


-ré-mus 


-ré-tis 
-re-nt 


Present. 


Imperfect. 








PASSIVE. 
INDIC. SUBJ. 

-or ( -r 
-ris or -re &; | -ris or -re 

S > 
-tur 82 | -tur 

<5 
-mur i -mur 
-mini S| -mini 
-ntur L -ntur 
-ba-r -re-r 
-ba-ris (-re) -r6-ris (-re) 
-ba-tur -ré-tur 
-ba-mur -ré-mur 
-ba-mini -ré-mini 
-ba-ntur -re-ntur 


1 These numerals refer to the four conjugations given later (see § 122). 


§ 118.] 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Piur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


YN = wb om 




















FORMS OF THE VERB. 65 
ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
INDICATIVE. - Future. INDICATIVE. 
1.4 Ill. Iv. 3. II. III. Iv. 
-b-5 yey (am -bo-r [ -a-r 
a2 on . by en oa 
bis .. aE: -2-8 ~be-ris (-re) Ss | -2tis (re) 
-bi-t heer -e-t -bi-tur <= | -é-tur 
—Ee 4 aie 
-bi-mus 0384 | -é-mus -bi-mur FE -é-mur 
-bi-tis 3.2% 8 | -é-tis -bi-mini £2 | -é-mini 
-bunt *%-5 323 _ -e-nt -bu-ntur | -e-ntur 
INDIC. SUBJ. Perfect. INDIC. SuBJ. 
I. - -eri- sum sim 
3 | basta, ; 
2. -i-sti -eri-s ) es sis 
3. -it -eri-t me eae sit 
I. -i-mus -eri-mus sumus simus 
-ti (-ta ee 
2. -i-stis -eri-tis as y pee sitis 
3. -6ru-nt or-ére -eri-nt oe sint 
Pluperfect. 
I. -era-m -isse-m eram essem 
z aft -tus (-ta, res at 
2. -era-8 -issé-s eras esses 
-tum) 
3. -era-t -isse-t erat esset 
I. -era-mus -issé-mus 1s 4a eramus essemus 
2. -era-tis -issé-tis i “ © | eratis essetis 
3. -era-nt -isse-nt ta) | erant essent 
Future Perfect. 
I. -er-6 -tas(-te, a 
2. -eri-s 7 eris 
-tum) 
3. -eri-t © erit 
I. -eri-mus * erimus 
-ti(-tae, 
2. -eri-tis wiki eritis 
3. -eri-nt erunt 
IMPERATIVE. 
Present. 
2.— Plur. 2. -te | Stug. 2. -re Plur. 2. -mini 
Future. 
2. -to 2. -tdte 2. -tor 2, — 
3. -to 3. -nto 3. -tor 3. -ntor 


1 These numerals refer to the four conjugations given later (see § 122). 


66 VERBS. 


[§ 119. 
For convenience, a table of the Noun and Adjective forms of the 
verb is here added. 
INFINITIVES. 
Pres. -re (Pres. stem) 
. -isse (Perf. stem) 


I. I. IV. -ri; Il. -i 
-tus (-ta, -tum) esse 





Fut. -ttrus (-a, -um) esse -tum iri 
PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. -ns, -ntis in oe 
Perf. -tus, -ta, -tum 
Fut. -tirus, -a, -um Ger. -ndus, -a, -um 
GERUND. SUPINE. 
-ndi, -ndo, -ndum -ndo -tum, -ti 


THE VERB SUM. 


119. The verb sum, de, is irregular and has no gerund 
or supine, and no participle but the future. 


Its conjugation is given at the outset, as it is used in the inflection 
of all other verbs. 





CIPAL PARTS: Pres. sum, Infin. esse, Perf. fui, 
Fut. Part. futtirus. 





INDICATIVE. . SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present. 
. I, sum, / am. sim?! 
2. 68, thou art (you are). sis 
3. est, he (she, zt) zs. sit ‘ 
Plur. 1. samus, we are. simus 
2. estis, you are. sitis 
3. sunt, they are. sint 
Imperfect. 
Sing. 1. eram, / was. essem (forem) 
2. eras, you were. essés (forés) 
3. erat, he (she, it) was. esset (foret) 
Plur. 1. eramus, we were. essémus 
2. eratis, you were. essétis 
3. erant, they were. essent (forent) 


1No translations of the subjunctive are given, as all are misleading. 











§ 119.] THE VERB SUM. 67 
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE, 
Future. 
Sing. 1. erd, J shall be. 
2. eris, you will be. 
3. erit, he will be. 
Plur. t. erimus, we shall be. 
2. eritis, you will be. 
3. erunt, they will be. 
Perfect. 
Sing. 1. tui, 7 was (have been). fuerim 
2. fuisti, you were. fueris 
3. fuit, he was. fuerit 
Plur. 1. fuimus, we were. fuerimus 
2. fuistis, you were. fueritis 
3. fuérunt, fuére, they were. fuerint 
Pluperfect. 
Sing. t. faeram, J had been. fuissem 
2. tueras, you had been. fuissés 
3. fuerat, he had been. fuisset 
Plur. \. fueramus, we had been. fuissémus 
2. fueratis, you had been. fuissétis 
3. fuerant, they had been. fuissent 
Future Perfect. 
Sing. 1. faers, 7 shall have been. Plur.1.ftuerimus, we shall have been. 


2. fueris, you will have been. 
3. fuerit, Ze will have been. 


2. fueritis, you will have been. 
3. fuerint, they will have been. 


IMPERATIVE. 


Present. Sing. 2. 88, be thou. 
2. esto, thou shalt be. 
3. esto, he shall be. 


Plur. 2. este, be ye. 
2. estote, ye shall be. 
3. sunto, they shall be. 


Future. 


’ 


INFINITIVE. 
Present. esse, fo be. 
Perfect. tuisse, to have been. 
Future. fore or futtirus esse, to be about to be. 


68° VERBS. [§§ 120-122. 


PARTICIPLE. 


Future. futtrus, -a, -um, about to be. 
a. The present participle appears in ab-séns, prae-séns; and as 
éns in pot-éns. 
6. For essem, etc., forem, forés, etc., are often used. 
120. The verb sum appears in numerous compounds, 
which are treated under Irregular Verbs (§ 13 De 





The Three Stems. 


121. The parts of the Latin verb are formed upon 
three different stems (partly real and partly supposed), 
called the Present, the the Perfect, and the Supine Stem. 


a. The tenses of. continued action, both active and passive, together 
with the Gerund and Gérundive, are formed upon the PRESENT-STEM, 
and collectively are called the Present System. 

6. The tenses of completed action in the active voice are formed 
upon the PERFECT STEM, and are ‘called the Perfect System. 

c. The Pérfect and Future Participles and the Supine are formed 
upon the SUPINE STEM, and are called the Supine System. 


as Vv. REGULAR VERBS. ee Fi ae 


122.)There are four regular forms of Present Stems 
ending respectively in 4-6-,6,i- With this difference 
most other differences of conjugation coincide. 


a. Verbs are accordingly classed in Four Regular Conjugations, 
distinguished by the stem-vowel which appears before -re in the 
Present Infinitive Active. 

6, The PRINCIPAL Parts of a verb, which determine its conjuga- 
tion throughout, are — 


. The Present Indicative ) showing the presen? stem and 
. The Present Infinitive } the conjugation. 

. The Perfect Indicative, showing the perfect stem. 

. The Supine, showing the supine stem. 


b- WO N 


§ 123.] REGULAR VERBS. 69 


c. The regular forms of the conjugations are seen in the following: — 
First: Active, am6, amare, amavi, amatum, /ove. 
Passive, amor, amari, amatus. 


Present stem ama-, Perfect stem amav-, Supine stem amat-. 


Second : Active, déled, délére, délévi, délétum, 4/o¢ out. 
Passive, déleor, déléri, deléetus. 
Present stem délé-, Perfect stem délév-, Supine stem delet-. 


Third: Active, teg6, tegére, téxi, téctum, cover. 
Pissive, tegor, tegi, tectus. 
Root TEG, Present stem tegé-, Perfect’ stem téx-, Supine 
stem téct-. 


Fourth : Active, audi6, audire, audivi, auditum, fear. 
Passive, audior, audiri, auditus. 


Present stem audi-, Perfect stem audiv-, Supine stem 
audit-. 


In the Second conjugation, the characteristic 6- rarely appears in 
the perfect and supine : the type of this conjugation is, therefore — 
Second : Active, moned, monére, monui, monitum, warn. 


Passive, moneor, monéri, monitus. 


ad. In many verbs the principal parts take forms belonging to two 
or more different conjugations : as, — 


I, 2, domo, domare, domui, domitum, szbdue. 
2, 3, maned, manére, mansi, mansum, remain. 
3, 4, peto, petére, petivi, petitum, secs. 

4, 3, vinci, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, Jind. 


- 
/ Such verbs‘are referred to the conjugation to which the Present stem 
conforms. 







os 


1. Present Stem. 


123. The Present Stem is formed from the Root in 
regular verbs in several ways, as appears in dictionaries. 


7O VERBS. [$§ 124-127. 


2. Perfect Stem. 
124, The Perfect Stem is formed as follows :— 
a. The suffix v (u) is added to the present stem ; as, voca-v-i, 


audi-v-1; or to the root: as, son-u-i (son-are), mon-u-i (mon-ére, 
MON treated as a root). 


Nore. — In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and length- 
ened (see § 9. @): as, stra-v-i (ster-nd), spré-v-i (sper-nd). 


6. The suffix s is added to the root: as, carp-s-I (carp-0), téx-i 
(for teg-s-i, teg-6). 

c. The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant — gen- 
erally with €, sometimes with the root-vowel : as, ce-cid-I (cad-5), 
to-tond-i (tond-ed). 


Note. — In fid-i (for + fe-fid-i, find-6), scid-i (for + sci-scid-i, scind6), the 
reduplication has been lost, leaving merely the root. 

d. The root-vowel is lengthened : as, 6g-i (Ag-S), flig-i (fiig-i-S). 

é. The root itself is used as the perfect stem: as, vert-i (vert-6), 
solv-i (solv-6, SOLV treated as a root). 

Ff. Sometimes the perfect is formed from a lost or imaginary stem : 
as, peti-v-i (as if from { peti-d, + peti-re, pet-d). 


3. Supine Stem. 
125. The Supine Stem is formed by adding t- (or, by a 
phonetic change, s-):— 


a. To the present stem: as, ama-t-um, délé-t-um, audi-t-um. 
6. To the root, with or without i: cap-t-um (cap-id), moni-t-um 
(mon-e6, MON treated as a root), cas-um (for cad-t-um). 


126. Omitted in this edition. 


4. Synopsis of the Verb. 
127. The following synopsis shows the forms of the 


verbs arranged according to the several stems. Am6, a 
regular verb of the first conjugation, is taken as a type. 


ACTIVE. 
> a 


PASSIVE. 
A. 


§ 128.] SYNOPSIS OF THE VERB. 71 


PRESENT STEM, ama-; PERFECT STEM, amav-; SUPINE STEM, amat-. 




















( PRES. IMPERF. FUT. : PERF. PLUPERF. FUT. PERF 
IND. amO ama&-bamama-b6_ : amav-i amav-eram amav-erc 
SUB. ame-m ama-rem : amav-erim amav-issem 
Imp. 2. ama ama-to 
INF. ama-re : amat-Urus: amav-isse 

OR ES. ae eR 

| PART. ama-ns ; amat-tirus 

(IND. am-or ama-bar ama-bor | amat-ussum—eram —ero 
SUB. ame-r ama-rer amat-us sim —- essem 
IMP. 2. ama-re ama-tor | ———— 





INF. ama-ri :ama-tum iri amat-us esse 








| PART. Ger. ama-ndus : amat-us 


128. SPECIAL Forms.—a. In tenses formed upon the perfect 
stem, v between two vowels is often lost. Thus, — 


1. Perfects in -avi, -6vi, -Gvi often contract the two vowels into 4, 
6, 5 respectively : as, amasse for amavisse; amarim for amaverim; 
coOnsuérat for cOnsuéverat; fléstis for flévistis. So where the v is 
a part of the present stem: as, commorat for commoverat. 

2. Perfects in -ivi regularly omit v, but rarely contract the vowels 
except before st and ss: as, audieram for audiveram; audisse for 
audivisse; audisti for audivisti; abiit for abivit. ‘ 

4. In many forms from the perfect stem, is, iss, sis are lost in like 
manner when s would be repeated : as, dixti for dixisti (x = cs). 

c. Four verbs, — dic, diic6, facid, fers, — with their compounds, 
drop the vowel-termination in the imperative, making dic, dic, fac, 
fér ; but compounds in -ficid retain it : as, cOnfice (cOn-ficio). 

@. For the imperative of sci, the future form scitd is always used 
in the singular, and scitdte usually in the plural. 

e. The following ancient forms are chiefly found in poetry :— 

. In the fourth conjugation -ibam, -ib6 for -iébam, -iam (future). 

2. In the present subjunctive -im: as in duim (for dem). 

3 In the perfect subjunctive and future perfect -sim, -s6: as, 
faxim, faxo (= f€cer6, etc.) ; ausim (—ausus sim). 

4. In the passive infinitive -ier: as, irier for iri; agier re agi. 


72 


FIRST CONJUGATION.— ACTIVE VOICE, 


VERBS. 


Supine amatum. 


[§ 128. 


1a PRINCIPAL PARTS: Pres. am6, Infin. amare, Perf. amavi, 











INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present. 

amo, / Jove. amem 

amas, thou lovest ( you love). amés 

amat, he (she, zt) loves. amet 

amamus, we Jove.. amémus 

amatis, you love. améetis 

amant, they love. ament 
Imperfect. 

_ amabam, / Joved. amarem 
amabas, you loved. amarés 
amabat, he Joved. amaret 
amabamus, we /oved. amaremus 
amabatis, you loved. amaréetis 
amabant, they loved. amarent 

Future. 
amabo, / shall love. 
amabis, you w7l/ love. 
amabit, he w// love. 
amabimus, we shall love. 
amabitis, you well love. 
amabunt, they will love. 

Perfect. 
amavi, / loved. amaverim 
amavisti, you loved. amaveris 
amavit, he loved. amaverit 
amavimus, we loved. amaverimus 
amavistis, you loved. amaveritis 
amavérunt (-6re), they loved. amaverint 





§ 129.] FIRST CONJUGATION. — ACTIVE VOICE. 7% 





INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
. | Pluperfect. 
amaveram, J had loved. : amavissem 
amaveras, you had loved. amavissés ~ 
amaverat, he had loved. amavisset 
amaveramus, we had loved. amavissemus 
amaveratis, you had loved. amavissetis 
amaverant, they had loved. amavissent 
Future Perfect. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 


amavero, J shall have loved. 
amaveris, you will have loved. 
amaverit, he will have loved. 


| 
| amaverimus, we shal/ have loved. 
amaveritis, you will have loved. 
| amaverint, they will have loved. 


IMPERATIVE. 
Pres. 2. ama, love thou. amate, ove ye. 
Fut. 2. amato, thou shalt love. amatote, ye shall love. 
3. amato, he shall love. amanto, they shall love. 
INFINITIVE. 


Present. amare, fo love. 
Perfect. amavisse or amasse, Zo have loved. 
Future. amattrus esse, fo be about to love. 


PARTICIPLES. 
Present. amans,-antis, Joving. 
Future. amattrus, -a, -um, about to love. 


GERUND. 


GEN. amandi, of loving. Acc. amandum, loving. 
Dat. amand6, for loving. ABL. amando, dy loving. 


SUPINE. 
Former. amatum Latter. amatu, fo Jove. 


129. The so-called Periphrastic conjugations are 
formed’ by combining the tenses of esse with the Future 
Active Parficiple and with the Gerundive : as, — 

Sr —_a«~ 





74 VERBS. . {s 129. 


First Periphrastic Conjugation. 


INDICATIVE. : SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present. amaturus sum, / am about to love. —— sim 
Imperf. amattrus eram, / was about to love. —— essem 
Future. amaturus ero, / shall be about to love. 
Perfect. amaturus fui, 7 was about, etc. —— fuerim 


Pluperf. amatirus fueram, / had been about, etc. ——— fuissem 
Fut. Perf. amatiras fuer6, J shall have been about, etc. 
INFINITIVE: Pres. amattrus esse Perf. amatirus fuisse 


Second Periphrastic Conjugation. 


INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present. amandus sum, / am fo be loved. —— sim 
Imperf. amandus eram, / was to be loved. —— essem 


Future. amandus ero, / shall be [worthy] fo be loved. 
Perfect. amandus fui, / was fo be loved. —— fuerim 
Pluperf. amandus fueram, / had deen, etc. —— fuissem 
Fut. Perf. amandus fuer6, J shall have been, etc. 

INFINITIVE: Pres. amandus esse Perf. amandus fuisse 


FIRST CONJUGATION. — PASSIVE VOICE. 


PRINCIPAL PARTS: Pres. amor, Infin. amari, Perf. amatus sum. 





INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

amor, / am loved. amer 

amaris (-re), you are loved. am6ris (-re) 

amatur, he zs loved. amétur 

amamur, we are loved. amémur 

amamini, you are loved. amémini 

amantur, they are loved. amentur 
Imperfect. 

amabar, J was loved. amarer 

amabaris (-re), you were loved. amaréris (-re) 

amabatur, e was loved. amaretur 

amabamur, we were loved. amaremur 

amabamini, you were loved. amareémini ™ 

amabantur, they were loved. amarentur 


§ 129.] 


_ INDICATIVE. 
Future. 


amabor, / shall be loved. 
amaberis (-re), you will be loved. 
amabitur, he wi// be loved. 
amabimur, we shall be loved. 
amabimini, you will be loved. 
amabuntur, they will be loved. 





Perfect. 
amatus sum, / was loved. 
amatus es, you were loved. 
amatus est, Ze was loved. 


amati sumus, we were loved. 
amati estis, you were loved. 
amati sunt, they were loved. 


Pluperfect. 
amatus eram, / had been loved. 
amatus eras, you had been loved. 
amatus erat, he had been loved. 
amati eramus, we had been loved. 
amati eratis, you had been loved. 
amati erant, they had been loved. 





FIRST CONJUGATION.— PASSIVE VOICE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


amatus sim 
amatus sis 
amatus sit 
amati simus 
amati sitis 
amati sint 


amatus essem 
amatus essés 
amatus esset 
amati essémus 
amati essetis 
amati essent 


Future Perfect. 


SINGULAR. 

amatus er6,/ shall have been loved. 
amatus eris, you will have, etc. 
amatus erit, he wz// have, etc. 


PLURAL. 


IMPERATIVE. 


Pres. 2. amare, de thou loved. 
Fut. 2. amator, thou shalt beloved. 
3. amator, he shall be loved. 


INFINITIVE. 


Present. amari, to be loved. 


amamini, de ye loved. 





amantor, they shall be loved. 


Perfect. amatus esse, to have been loved. 


Future. amatum iri (amatus fore), 40 be about to be loved. 


75 


amati erimus, we shall have, etc. 
amati eritis, you will have, etc. 
amati erunt, they will have, etc. 


76 


VERBS. 


PARTICIPLES. 


[§ 130. 


Perfect. amatus, loved (beloved, or having been loved ). 
Future. (Gerundive.) amandus, -a, -um, fo-be-loved (lovely). 


130. There are about 360 simple verbs of this conjugation, most 
of them formed directly on a noun- or adjective-stem : as, arm6, arm 
(arma, arms); caecd, to blind (caecus, blind); exsuld, de an exile 
(exsul, ax exile) (§ 166. a). ‘ Their conjugation is usually regular, 


like am6; though of many only a few forms are found in ae 
‘ 


SECOND CONJUGATION. 


PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, Moned, Monére, Monui, monitum ; 
Passive, moneor, monéri, monitus sum. 








ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
Present. 
moneo, / warn. moneam moneor monear 
monés, you warn. moneas monéris (-re) | monearis(-re) 
monet, fe warns. moneat moneétur moneatur 
monéemus moneamus monémur moneamur 
monétis -moneatis monemini moneamini 
monent moneant monentur moneantur 
Imperfect. 
monébam monérem monébar monérer 
monebas moneérés - monébaris (-re) monéréris (-re) 
monébat monéret monébatur monérétur 
monébamus monérémus monébamur monérémur 
monébatis monérétis monébamini monérémini 
-monébant monérent monébantur monérentur 
Future. 
monébo monébor 
monébis 7 monéberis (-re) 
monébit monébitur 
monébimus monébimur 
monébitis monébimini 
monébunt monébuntur 











§ 130.] SECOND CONJUGATION. 77 
. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
Perfect. 
monui monuerim monitus sum monitus sim 
monuisti monueris monitus es monitus sis 
monuit monuerit monitus est ‘monitus sit 
monuimus monuerimus moniti sumus moniti simus 
monuistis monueritis moniti estis moniti sitis 
monuérunt (-re) monuerint moniti sunt moniti sint 
Pluperfect. 
monueram monuissem monitus eram monitus essem 
monueras monuissés monitus eras monitus essés 
monuerat monuisset monitus erat monitus esset 
monueramus monuissemus | monitieramus moniti essémus 
monueratis monuissétis moniti eratis moniti essétis 
monuerant monuissent moniti erant moniti essent 
Future Perfect. 
monuero monitus ero 
monueris monitus eris 
monuerit monitus erit 
monuerimus moniti erimus 
monueritis moniti eritis 
monuerint moniti erunt 
IMPERATIVE. 
SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. 
Pres. 2. mone monete monére monémini 
Fut. 2. monéto monetote monétor 
3. monéto monento monétor monentor 
INFINITIVE. 
Pres. monére monéri 
Perf. monuisse monitus esse 
Fut. monitiirus esse monitum iri (monitus fore) 
PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. monéns Perf. monitus 


Fut. 


monittrus 


Ger. monendus 


GERUND: monendi, -d6, -dum, -d6° SUPINE: monitum, moniti 


78 VERBS. [§ 131. 

131. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of this conjugation, most 
of them denominative verbs of condition, having a corresponding 
noun and adjective from the same root, and an inceptive in -scd 
(§ 167. a): as, caled, be warm, calor, warmth, calidus, warm ; 
calésco, grow warm, timed, fear; timor, fear, timidus, ¢zzd. 

Most verbs of this conjugation form their perfect and supine like 
moneo. The following have -évi and -6tum: déled, destroy ; fled, 
weep ; neo, spin; vied, plat; and compounds of -ples, 7/7, -oled, 
grow. 

THIRD CONJUGATION. 


PRINCIPAL PARTS : Active, tego, tegére, téxi, tectum ; 
Passive, tegor, tegi, tectus sum. 








ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
Present. 
tego, 7 cover. tegam _ tegor tegar 
tegis, you cover. tegas tegeris(-re) tegaris (-re) 
tegit, he covers. tegat tegitur tegatur 
tegimus tegamus tegimur tegamur 
tegitis tegatis tegimini tegamini 
tegunt tegant teguntur tegantur 
Imperfect. 
tegébam tegerem tegébar tegerer 
tegébas tegerés tegébaris (-re) tegeréris (-re) 
tegébat tegeret tegébatur tegerétur 
tegébamus - tegerémus tegébamur teger6mur 
tegebatis tegerétis tegébamini tegeré6mini 
tegébant tegerent tegébantur tegerentur 
Future. 

tegam tegar 
tegés tegGris (-re) 
teget tegétur 
tegémus tegémur 
tegétis tegémini 
tegent tegentur 














§ 131.] THIRD CONJUGATION. 79 
ACTIVE. PASSIVE. — 
INDIC. SuBj. INDIC. SUBJ. 
Perfect. 
téxi téxerim téctus sum téctus sim 
téxisti téxeris téctus es téctus sis 
téxit téxerit téctus est téctus sit 
téximus téxerimus técti sumus técti simus 
téxistis téxeritis técti estis técti sitis 
téxérunt (-re) téxerint técti sunt técti sint 
Pluperfect. 
téxeram téxissem téctus eram téctus essem 
téxeras téxissés téctus eras téctus essés 
téxerat téxisset téctus erat téctus esset 
téxeramus téxissémus técti eramus técti essémus 
téxeratis téxissétis técti eratis técti essétis 
téxerant téxissent técti erant técti essent 
Future Perfect. 
téxero téctus ero 
téxeris téctus eris 
téxerit téctus erit 
téxerimus técti erimus 
téxeritis técti eritis 
téxerint técti erunt 
IMPERATIVE. 
SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. 
Pres, 2. tege, cover. tegite tegere tegimini 
Fut. 2. tegito tegitdte tegitor 
3. tegito tegunto tegitor teguntor 
INFINITIVE. 
Pres. tegere tegi 
Perf. téxisse téctus esse 
Fut. técttirus esse téctum iri (téctus fore) 
PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. tegéns Perf. téctus 
Fut. técttrus Ger. tegendus (-undus) 


GERUND : tegendi, -d6, -dum, -do 





SUPINE: téctum, técti 


80 VERBS. [§ 131. 


VERBS IN -I0. 


Verbs of the third conjugation in -id have certain forms of the 
present stem like the fourth conjugation. They retain the i of the 
stem before a, 6, u, and 6, but lose it elsewhere except in the future 
and in the participle and gerund. They are conjugated as follows :— 


PRINCIPAL PARTS: Capi, capére, cépi, captum ; 
capior, capi, captus sum. 





ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
INDIC. SUBJ. - INDIC. SUBJ. 
" Present. 
ceapio, 7 take. capiam capior capiar 
capis, you take.  capias caperis (-re) capiaris (-re) 
capit, he takes. _—_capiat capitur capiatur 
capimus capiamus capimur capiamur 
capitis capiatis capimini capiamini 
capiunt capiant capiuntur capiantur 
Imperfect. 
capiébam caperem > | capiébar caperer 
Future. 
capiam ; - capiar 
capiés capiéris (-re) 
capiet, etc. capiétur, etc. 
Perfect. 
cépi céperim | captus sum captus sim 
Pluperfect. 
céperam cépissem | captus eram captus essem 


Future Perfect. 





cépero | captus ers 
IMPERATIVE. 
SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. 
Pres. 2. cape capite capere capimini 
Fut. 2. capito capitote capitor 


3. capitd capiunto capitor capiuntor 


§ 132.] 


FOURTH DECLENSION. 


SING. 
Pres. capere 
Perf. cépisse 
Fut. capturus esse 


Pres. Capiéns 
Fut. capttirus 


GERUND : capiendi, -d6, -dum, -d6 





INFINITIVE. 


PLUR. 
capi 
captus esse 
captum iri 


PARTICIPLES. 


Perf. Captus 


81 


Ger. capiendus 


SUPINE : 


captum, -tt 


132. List of verbs omitted in this edition, see larger 


grammar. 


FOURTH CONJUGATION. 


PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, audio, audire, audivi, auditum ; 
Passive, aadior, audiri, auditus sum. 


ACTIVE. 

INDIC. SUBJ. 
audio, / dear. audiam 
audis, you hear. audias 
audit, he hears. audiat 
audimus audiamus 
auditis audiatis 
audiunt audiant 
audiébam audirem 
audiébas audirés 
audiébat audiret 
audiébamus audirémus 
audiébatis audirétis 
audiébant audirent 
audiam 
audiés 
audiet 
audiémus 
audiétis 


audient 





Present. 


Imperfect. 


Future. 


PASSIVE. 

INDIC. SUBJ. 
audior audiar 
audiris (-re) audiaris (-re) 
auditur audiatur 
audimur audiamur 
audimini audiamini 
audiuntur audiantur 
audiébar audirer 
audiébaris (-re) audiréris (-re) 
audiébatur audirétur 
audiébamur audirémur 
audiébamini audirémini 
audiébantur audirentur 
audiar 
audiéris (-re) 
audiétur 
audiémur 
audiémini 
audientur 





82 VERBS. [§ 132. 
* ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
Perfect. 
audivi audiverim auditus sum auditus sim 
audivisti audiveris auditus es auditus sis 
audivit audiverit auditus est auditus sit 
audivimus audiverimus auditi sumus auditi simus 
audivistis audiveritis auditi estis auditi sitis 
audivérunt (-re) audiverint auditi sunt auditi sint 
Pluperfect. 
audiveram audivissem auditus eram auditus essem 
audiveras audivissés auditus eras auditus essés 
audiverat audivisset auditus erat auditus esset 
audiveramus audivissémus auditi eramus auditi essémus 
audiveratis audivissétis auditi eratis auditi essétis 
audiverant audivissent auditi erant auditi essent 
Future Perfect. 
audivero auditus ero 
audiveris auditus eris 
audiverit auditus erit 
audiverimus auditi erimus 
audiveritis auditi eritis 
audiverint auditi erunt 
IMPERATIVE. | 
SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. 

Pres. 2. audi audite audire audimini 
Fut. 2. audits auditdte auditor 

3. audits audiunto auditor _ audiuntor 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres. audire audiri 

Perf. audivisse auditus esse ; 

Fut. audittirus esse auditum iri (auditus fore) 





PARTICIPLES. 


Pres. audiéns 
Fut. audittrus 


GERUND : audiendi, -d6, -dum, -d6 


Perf. auditus 
Ger. audiendus 


SUPINE : auditum, auditt 


§§ 133-135:] DEPONENT VERBS. ~ 83 


188. There are— besides a few deponents and some regular 
derivatives in -triG, as Esurid, de hungry (cf. § 167. ¢)— about 60 
verbs of this conjugation, a large proportion of them being descriptive 
verbs. 


Parallel Forms. 


134. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, of 
which only one is generally found in classic use : as, — 
lav6, lavare or lavére, wash. 


DEPONENT VERBS. 


135. Deponent Verbs have the form of the Passive 
Voice, with an active or reflexive signification : as, — 
st conj. miror, mirari, miratus, admire. 
(24 conj. vereor, veréri, veritus, fear. 
3d) conj. sequor, sequi, secttiis, /o//ow. 2 
4th conj. partior, partiri, partitus, share. 


INDICATIVE. 
| Biss a III. IV. 
\ Pres. miror vereor sequor partior 
\ miraris (-re) veréris (-re) sequeris (-re) partiris (-re) 
miratur verétur sequitur partitur 
miramur vereémur sequimur partimur 
miramini verémini sequimini partimini 
mirantur verentur secuntur partiuntur 
_Lmpf. mirabar. verébar sequébar partiébar — 
Fut. mirabor verebor sequar partiar 


Perf. miratus sum veritussum secltussum  partitus sum 
Plug. miratus eram veritus eram seciitus eram  partitus eram 


Ff. P, miratus ers veritus ero secttus erd partitus ero 
SUBJUNCTIVE. — 

Pres, mirer verear sequar partiar 

Impf. mirarer verérer sequerer partirer 

Perf. miratus sim veritus sim secttus sim partitus sim 


Plup. miratus essem veritus essem sectitus essem partitus essem 


84 VERBS. [§ 135. 


IMPERATIVE. 
I. Il. Ill. IV. 
mirare, -ator, etc. ver6re, -6tor sequere, -itor _partire, -itor 


INFINITIVE. 
Pres, mirari ver6éri sequi partiri 
Perf. miratus esse veritusesse sectitus esse partitus esse 
Fut. mirattirus esse verittrus esse sectttrus esse partiturus esse 


PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. mirans verens sequéns partiéns 
Fut. miratarus verittrus secutirus partittrus 
Perf. miratus veritus secutus partitus 
Ger. mirandus verendus sequendus partiendus 
GERUND. 


mirandi, -6,etc. verendi, etc. sequendi, etc. partiendi, etc. 


SUPINE. 
miratum, -tti veritum, -tt secttum, -tu partitum, -ti 
‘a. Deponents have the participles of both voices : as, — 


sequéns, following. secuttrus, about to follow. 
secutus, having followed. sequendus, /o-be-followed. 


‘4. The perfect participle generally has an active sense, but in verbs 
otherwise deponent it is often passive : as, mercatus, dough? ; adeptus, 
gained (or having gained ). 

c. The future infinitive is always in the active form: thus, sequor 
has sectittirus esse (not sectitum iri). 

d. The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in 
transitive verbs, or neuter verbs used impersonally : as, — 


hdc confitendum est, iis must be acknowledged. 
moriendum est omnibus, a// must die. 


é. Most deponents are neuter or reflexive in meaning. 

JF. Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive sense : as, 
criminor, / accuse, or J am accused. 

g. About twenty verbs are, with an active meaning, found in both 
active and passive forms : as, mered or mereor, / deserve. 

hk. More than half of all deponents are of the First Conjugation, 
and all of these are regular. 


§§ 136, 137-] IRREGULAR VERBS. 85 


Semi-Deponents. 


136. A few verbs having no perfect stem are regular 
in the present, but appear in the tenses of completed 
action as deponents. These are called sem-deponents or 
neuter passives. They are — 


audeo, audére, ausus, dare. gaudeod, gaudére, gavisus, rejoice. 
_ fidd, fidére, fisus, ¢rusz. soled, solére, solitus, de wont. 


IRREGULAR VERBS. 


137. Several verbs add some of the personal endings 
of the present system directly to the root, or combine two 
verbs in their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs. 
They are sum, vol6, ferd, ed, ques, e5, fis, and their com- 
pounds. 

Sum has already been inflected in § 119. 

a. Sum is compounded without any change of inflection with the 
prepositions ab, ad, dé, in, inter, ob, prae, prd (prod), sub, super. 

In the compound prosum, pro retains its original d before e. 
Thus, — 


INDIC. SUBJ. 
Pres. prosum, / help. prosim 
prodes prosis 
prodest prosit 
prosumus prosimus 
prodestis prositis 
prosunt prosint 


Impf. proderam, / was helping. prOdessem 
Fut.  prodero, / shall help. 

Perf. protui, J helped. profuerim 
Plup. profueram, / had helped. prdfaissem 
F. P.  protuerd, 7 shall have helped. 


IMPER. prodes, prodesto, etc. 
INFIN. Pres. prodesse Perf. protuisse Fut. profutiirus esse 
PART. profutirus, about to help. 


86 VERBS. [§ 138. 


6. Sum is also compounded with the adjective potis, or pote, ad/e, 
making the verb possum. This is inflected as follows : — 


— | INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIYVE. 
Pres. possum, / can. possim 
potes, you can. possis 
potest, he can. possit 
possumus, we can. possimus 
potestis, you can. possitis 
possunt, they can. possint 
Impf. poteram, J could. possem 
Fut. poterd, 7 shall be able. 
Perf. potui, J could. potuerim 
Plup. potueram potuissem 
F. P. potuero, J shall have been able. 
INFIN. Pres. posse Perf. potuisse 
PART. poténs (adj.), Zowerful. 


138. Vold and its compounds are inflected as follows :— 
( vol6, velle, volui, w7s7i> 
nolo (for né vold), nolle, ndlui, de unwilling. 
malo ( for magis or mage vol), malle, malui, wish rather, prefer. 


a4 ; Present. 

|| Invic. Susy. InDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SuBJ. 
ols velim nolo ndlim malo malim 
vis velis nonvis nolis mavis malis 
volt (vult) velit nonvolt nolit mavolt malit 


volumus velimus nolumus nolimus malumus malimus 
voltis(vul-) velitis nonvultis nodlitis mavultis mialitis 
volunt velint nolunt nolint malunt malint 


Imperfect. 
volébam  vellem nolébam nodllem malébam mallem 
Future, 
volam, volés, etc. | nodlam, nolés, etc. malam, malés, etc. 
| Perfect. 
volui voluerim nodlui noluerim malui maluerim 
Pluiperfeci. 


volueram voluissem nolueram nodluissem malueram m4aluissem 


\ 








§ 139-] IRREGULAR VERBS. 87 
Future Perfect. 
voluero noluero maluerd 
IMPERATIVE. 
Pres. noli nolite, do not. 
Fut. nolits nolitote, thou shaltnot, ye shall not. 
nolits 
INFINITIVE. 
velle voluisse nodlle noluisse malle maluisse 
PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. voléns, willing. ndlens, unwilling. 
GERUND: volendi fey, 
as 139. Ferd, ferre, tii, latum, dear. + SH 
ACTIVE. " «PASSIVE. 
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC, SUBJ. 
Pres. fers feram feror ferar 
fers feras ferris feraris (-re) 
fert ferat fertur feratur 
ferimus feramus ferimur feramur 
fertis feratis ferimini feramini 
ferunt ferant ~ feruntur ferantur 
Impf. terébam ferrem ferébar ferrer 
Fut. feram ferar 
Perf. téli tulerim latus sum latus sim 
Plup. taleram tulissem latus eram latus essem 
F. P. talero latus ero 
IMPERATIVE. 
Pres. fer ferte ferre ferimini 
Fut. ferto fertote fertor 
ferto feruntd fertor feruntor 
INFINITIVE. 
Pres. terre ferri 
Perf. tualisse latus esse 
Fut. Jattrus esse latum iri (latus fore) 
PARTICIPLES, 
Pres. teréns Perf. latug 
Fut. laturus Ger. ferendus 
GERUND: ferendi, -d6, -dum, -do SUPINE : latum, -ti 


88 


VERBS. 


[§ 140. 


140. Ed6, edere, 6di, 6sum, ea/, is regular of the third conjuga- 
tion, but has also some forms directly from the root (ED) without the 


characteristic vowel. 


INDIC. 


edd 

edis (6s) 
edit (€st) 
edimus 
editis (Estis) 
edunt 


edébam 
edébas 
edébat 


edam 
edés 
edet, etc. 


édi 

éderam 
éderd 

ede (6s) 
edit6 (éstd) 
edit (Esto) 
edere (sse) 


édisse 
ésurus esse 


Pres, 
Fut. 


GERUND: edendi, -dé, -dum, -dé 








These are in full-faced type. 





ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
SuBj. INDIC. SUBJ. 
Present. 
edam (edim) edor edar 
edas (edis) ederis (-re) edaris (-re) 
edat (edit) editur (@stur) edatur 
edamus (edimus) | edimur edamur 
edatis (editis) edimini edamini 
edant (edint) eduntur edantur 
Imperfect. 
ederem (6ssem) edébar ederer 
ederés (€ss6s) edébaris (-re) ederéris (-re) 
ederet (Gsset) edébatur ederétur (Gssétur) 
Future. 
edar 
edéris 
edétur, efc. 
Perfect. 
éderim | €sus sum ésus sim 
Pluperfect. 
édissem | €suseram sus essem 
Future Perfect. 
| sus erd 
IMPERATIVE. 
edite (Este) edere edimini 
editdte (Estdte) editor 
edunto editor eduntor 
INFINITIVE. 
edi 
€sus esse 
€sum Ir 
PARTICIPLES. 
edéns Perf. €sus 
ésiirus Ger. edendus 


SUPINE: ésum, -sii 


§ 141.] IRREGULAR VERBS. 89 


41. 6, ire, ivi, itum, go. 





INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres. S. 6, is, it eam, eas, eat 
FP. imus, itis, eunt eamus, eatis, eant 
Imperf. bam, ibas, ibat irem, irés, iret 
ibamus, ibatis, ibant irémus, irétis, irent 


Future. b6, ibis, ibit 

ibimus, ibitis, Ibunt 
Perfect. iwi (ii) iverim (ierim) 
Pluperf. iveram (ieram) ivissem (issem) i 
Fut. Perf. tvexo (ierd) 


{| 
IMPERATIVE. ae 
i, ite, itd, itd, itdte, eunto 


. 


INFINITIVE. 
Pres. ire Perf. ivisse( isse) Ft. ittrus esse 
PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. iéns, euntis Fv/. ittrus Ger, eundum 
GERUND: eundi, -do, -dum, -do SUPINE: itum, itu 


a. The compounds aded, approach, ined, enter, and some others, 
are transitive. They are inflected as follows in the passive : — 


INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres. adeor Impf. adibar Pres. adear 
adiris Fut. adibor Impf. adirer 
aditur Perf. aditus sum Perf. aditus sim 
adimur //up. aditus eram Plup. aditus essem 
adimini /./. aditus erd INFIN. adiri, aditus esse 
adeuntur PART. aditus adeundus 


Thus inflected, the forms of eG are used impersonally in the third 
person singular of the passive: as, itum est (§ 146. d). The infinitive 
iri is used with the supine in -um to make the future infinitive passive 
(§ 147.¢.1). The verb véned, de so/d (z.e. venum €6, go to ss has 
also several forms in the passive. 

é. In the perfect system of ed and its compounds the forms with v 
are extremely rare. 

c. The compound ambi, inflected regularly like a verb of the 
fourth conjugation, has also ambibat in the imperfect indicative. 

d@. Prd with eG retains its original d: as, prode6d, prddis, prodit. 


90 VERBS. [§§ 142, 143. 


142. Facid, facére, féci, factum, make, is regular. But it has 
imperative fac in the active, and besides the regular forms the future 
perfect faxd, perfect subjunctive faxim. The passive of facio is — 


fid, fiéri, factus sum, Je made, or become. 


The tenses of the first stem of fi6 are regular of the fourth conjuga- 
tion, but the subjunctive imperfect is fierem, and the infinitive fieri. 


INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres. S. i6, fis, fit fiam, fias, fiat 
FP. fimus, fitis, fiunt fiamus, fiatis, fiant 
Imperf. fiébam, fiébas, etc. fierem, fierés, etc. 
Future. fiam, fiés, etc. 
Perfect. factus sum factus sim 
Pluperf. tactus eram factus essem 
Fut. Perf. factus ero 
IMPER. fi, fite, fito, fitote, fiunto 
INFIN. /res. fieri Perf. factus esse Fut. factum iri 
Part. Perf. factus Ger. faciendus 


a. Most compounds of faciS with prepositions change 4 to i (pres- 
ent stem), or & (supine stem), and are inflected regularly : as, — 


conficid, conficére, conféci, cOnfectum, finish. 
conficior, confici, coOnfectus. 


é. Other compounds retain a, and have -fid in the passive: as, 
benefaci6, -facere, -féci, -factum ; pass. benefi6, -fieri, -factus, dene/it. 
These retain the accent of the simple verb: .as, bene-fa’cis (§ 19. @). 

c. A few isolated forms of -fi6 occur in other compounds: viz., — 


confit, 7¢ happens. efit, 7¢ lacks. infit, he begins (to speak). 


confiet défiunt infiunt 

confiat deéfiet effieri, fo be effected. 
confieret défiat interfieri, to Zerish. 
confieri . défieri interfiat, Jet him perish. 


DEFECTIVE VERBS. 


143. Some verbs have lost their Present stem, ahd use 
only tenses of the Perfect, in which they are inflected 
regularly. These are — 


rk ee DEFECTIVE VERBS. 9g! 


a. Coepi, / degan,; Infin. coepisse; Fut. Part. coeptirus; Perf. 
Pass. Part. coeptus. 

The passive is used with the passive infinitive; as, coeptus sum 
vocari, J began to be called, but coepi vocare, / began to call. 
For the present incipid is used. 

b. Odi, 7 hate ; perfect participle Ssus, hating or hated (perdaus, 
utterly hateful), future participle Ostirus, /kely to hate. 

c. Memini, / remember ; with the Imperative mement6, memen- 
tote; Part. meminéns. 


Nore. — Odi and memini have a perfect form with a present meaning, 
and are called preteritive verbs. Novi and cénsuévi (usually referred to 
ndsco and consuéscé) are often used in the sense of 7 4nuow (have learned), 
and / am accustomed (have become accustomed), as preteritive verbs. 
Many other verbs are occasionally used in the same way (see § 279. 
Remark). 


144. Many verbs are found only in the present system. Such 
are maered, -ére, Je sorrowful (cf. maestus, sad); ferid, -ire, strike. 

In many the simple verb is incomplete, but the missing parts occur 
in its compounds: as, vad6, vadere, invasi, invasum. 

Some verbs occur very commonly, but only in a few forms: as, — 

a. Bid, J say: — 


InpDic. Pres. . aid, ais, ait; ———_ ——atiunt 
Impf. 2iébam (aibam), aiébas, etc. 

Supj. Pres. aias, aiat, aiant 

IMPER. ai 

PART. aieéns 


4. Inquam, / say (used only, except in poetry, in direct quotations, 
like the English goth, which is possibly from the same root) : — 


Inpic. Pres. inquam, inquis, inquit 
inquimus, inquitis (late), inquiunt 
Impf. inquiébat 
fut. inquiés, -et 
Perf. inquisti, inquit 
IMPER. inque, inquitd 


g2 ; VERBS. [§ 144. 


c. The deponent fari, to speak, forms the perfect tenses regularly : 
as, fatus sum, eram, etc. It has also— 


Inpic. Pres. fatur, fantur 
Fut. fabor, fabitur 
IMPER. fare 
INFIN. fari 
Part. Pres. (dat.) fanti 
Perf. fatus, having spoken. 
Ger. fandus, Zo be spoken of. 
GER. fandi, -do 
Sup. fata 


Several forms compounded with the prepositions ex, prae, pro, inter, 
occur: as, praefatur, affari, profatus, interfatur, etc. The compound 
infans is regularly used as a noun (chz/d). Infandus, nefandus, are 
used as adjectives, wuspeakable, abominable. 


@. Quaes6, / ask, beg (original form of quaerd), has — 


Inpic. Pres. quaesd, quaesimus 
INFIN. quaesere 
PART. - quaesens 


é. Ovare, to triumph, has the following : — 


Inpic. Pres. ovat 
Subpj. Pres. ovet 
Impf. ovaret 
PART. Ovans, ovaturus, ovatus 
GER’ ° ovandi 


jf. A few verbs are found chiefly in the Imperative : as, — 


Pres. sing. salvé, plur. salvéte, Aaz// (from salvus, safe 
and sound). An infin. salvére also occurs. 

Pres. sing. avé (or havé), plur. avéte, /uz. avéto, haz/ or 
farewell. 

Pres. sing. cedo, plur. cedite (cette), ezve, tell. 

Pres. sing. apage! degone/ (properly a Greek word). 


g- Ques, 7 can, neques, / cannot, are conjugated like ed. They 
are rarely used except in the present. 


§ 145,] 


INDIC. 


queso 
quis 
quit 
quimus 


quitis 
_ queunt 


quibam 
quibat 
quibant 


quibo 
quibunt 


quire 





IMPERSONAL VERBS. 93 
SuBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
Present. 
queam nequed (non quedo) nequeam 
queas nonquis nequeas 
queat nequit nequeat 
queamus nequimus nequeamus 
queatis nequitis nequeatis 
queant nequeunt nequeant 
Imperfect. 
quirem nequibam nequirem 
quiret nequibat nequiret — 
quirent nequibant nequirent 
Future. 
nequibunt 
Perfect. 
nequivi 
— nequivisti 
quiverit nequivit 
nequiverunt 
Pluperfect. 
quissent nequisset 
INFINITIVE, 
quivisse (quisse) nequire nequivisse 
PARTICIPLES. 


quiéns, queuntis 


nequiéns 


IMPERSONAL VERBS. 


145. Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in 
the third person singular, the infinitive, and the gerund. 
These are called Impersonal Verbs, as having no personal 
subject. Their synopsis may be given as follows :— 


VERBS. 


94 [§ 146. 

Cony. L. 1%. III. Sa Pass, Conj. I. 

it ts plain. it ts allowed. it chances. it results. it zs fought. 
constat licet “accidit évenit pugnatur 
constabat licébat accidébat Gveniébat pugnabatur 
constabit licébit [est accidet  veniet pugnabitur 
constitit licuit, -itum accidit évenit pugnatum est 
constiterat licuerat acciderat Gvénerat pugnatum erat 
constiterit licuerit acciderit évenerit pugnatum erit 
constet liceat accidat éveniat pugnétur 
constaret licéret accideret €Gveniret pugnarétur 
constiterit licuerit acciderit évenerit pugnatum sit 
constitisset licuisset § accidisset Evénisset pugnatum esset 
constare licére accidére 6venire pugnari 
cOnstitisse —_—licuisse accidisse Gvénisse  pugnatum esse 


-staturum esse -ittirum esse 





-tirum esse pugnatum iri 


146. Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows : — 


a. Verbs expressing the oferations of nature and the time of day: 
as, pluit, 7¢ rains ; ningit, zt a oe it 
lightens ; Wesperascit (inceptive, § 167. a), 2¢ grows late; Wiciscit 
hoc iam, 7¢ zs getting light now. 


Norte. — In these no subject is distinctly thought of. Sometimes, how- 
ever, the verb is used personally with the name of a divinity as the subject : 
as, lippiter tonat, Jupiter thunders. In poetry other subjects are occasion- 
ally used : as, fundae saxa pluunt, ¢he slings rain stones. 


b. Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject 
becomes the object, as being himself affected by the feeling expressed 
in the verb (§ 221. 4). Such are miseret, 7¢ grieves; paenitet 
(poenitet), 7¢ repents ; piget, zt disgusts ; pudet, zt shames ; taedet, 
it wearies; as, miseret m6, / fity (it distresses me). 


Note. — Such verbs often have also a passive form : as, misereor, 7 ity 
(am moved to pity) ; and occasionally other parts: as, paenitiirus (as from 
+ paenid), paenitendus, pudendus, pertaesum est, pigitum est. 


c. Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject (§§ 270. 
@, 330, 332. @): as, — 


~- 


§147.] - PERIPHRASTIC FORMS. 95 


accidit, contingit, évenit, obtingit, obvenit, fit, 7¢ happens. 


libet, z¢ pleases. délectat, iuvat. zt delights. 
licet, z¢ zs Permitted. necesse est, via: 

certum est, z/ zs resolved. —_ oportet, aot BPE WA 
constat, z¢ zs clear. praestat, z¢ zs better. 

decet, z¢ zs becoming. interest, réfert, z¢ concerns. 


NoTE. — Many of these verbs may be used personally. Libet and licet 
have also the passive forms libitum (licitum) est, etc. The participles 
libéns and licéns are used as adjectives. 


a. The passive of intransitive verbs is very often used imperson- 
ally: as, pugnatur, ¢here 7s fighting (it is fought); itur, some one goes 
(it is gone); parcitur mihi, / am spared (it is spared to me, see § 230). 


Periphrastic Forms. 


147. The following periphrastic forms are found in the 
inflection of the verb : — 


a. The so-called “ Periphrastic Conjugations ” (see § 129). 

b. The tenses of completed action in the passive formed by the 
tenses of esse with the perfect participle : as, amatus est. 

c. The future infinitive passive, formed ‘as follows :— 


1. By the infinitive~passive of e6, go, used impersonally with the 
supine in -um: amatum iri. 

2. By fore (or futtrum esse), with the perfect participle (as amatus 
fore). 
3. By fore with ut and the subjunctive (cf. § 288. /). 


NOTE. 
‘Origin and History of Verb-Forms. 


The forms that make up the conjugation of a verb are composed 
of formations from a root, originally separate, but gradually grouped 
together, and afterwards supplemented by new formations made on 
old lines to supply deficiencies. Some of these forms were inherited, 
already made, by the Latin language ; others were developed in the 
course of the history of the language itself. 


96 PARTICLES. [$§ 148, 149. 


7. PARTICLES. 


Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections 
are called ParticLes. In their origin they are (1) case- 
forms, actual or extinct, (2) compounds and phrases, or (3) 
meaningless exclamations. 


I. ADVERBS. 
1. Derivation. 


148. Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives as 
follows : — 

a. From adjectives of the first and second declensions, by chang- 
ing the characteristic vowel of the stem to -€: as, caré, dearly, from 
carus, dear (stem caro-). 

4. From adjectives of the third declension by adding -ter to the 
stem. Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) Jose the -t. All others are treated as 
i-stems. Thus, — 

fortiter, dravely, from fortis (stem forti-), drave. 
acriter, eagerly, from acer (stem acri-), eager. 
vigilanter, watchfully, from vigilans (stem vigilant-). 
prudenter, prudently, from pradéns (stem prudent-). 
aliter, otherwise, from alius (old stem ali-). 


c. Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs 
of both forms (-6 and -ter), Thus, dtrus, ard, duré and diriter. 

ad. The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often used 
as an adverb: as, multum, much; facilé, easily; quid, why. 

So, regularly in the comparative degree : as, acrius, more keenly 
(positive acriter) ; facilius, sore easily (positive facilé). 


2. Classification. 
149. Adverbs are classified as follows :— 


a. ADVERBS OF PLACE. 
hic, here. hic, Azther. hine, hence. hac, dy this way. 


6. ADVERBS OF TIME. 
quands ? when ? (interrog.) ; cum (quom), when (relat.). 


§§ 150, 151.] . ADVERBS. 97 


c. ADVERBS OF DEGREE OR CAUSE. 


quam, ow, as; tam, so, quamvis, however much, although; quo- 
modo, ow. 
dad. INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES. 


an, -ne, anne, utrum, utrumne, num, whether. 


e. NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 
non, oft (in simple denial) ; haud (hau, haut), minimé, of (in con- 
tradiction) ; né, zo¢ (in prohibition) ; néve, neu, zor; nédum, 
much less. 
J. ADVERBS. OF MANNER (see § 148). 
g. NUMERAL ADVERBS (see § 96). 


3- Peculiar Uses of Adverbs. 


150. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative : 
as, — 

ném6 non audiet, every one will hear (nobody will not hear). 

a. Many compounds of which n6n is the first part express an z#- 
definite affirmative : as, — 

nonniillus, some ; ndnnilli (= aliqui), some few. 

nonnihil (= aliquid), something. 

nonnémo ( = aliquot), sundry persons. 

nonnumquam ( = aliquotiéns), sometimes. 

necnon, a/so (nor not). 


4. Two negatives of which the second is non (belonging to the 
predicate) express a universal affirmative : as, — 
ném6 non, niillus non, zobody [does] not, i.e. everybody [does] (cf. ndnnéms, 
above, not nobody, 2.e. somebody). 
nihil non, everything. 
numquam non, ever not, ie. always (cf. nOnnumquam, above, zot never, 
z.¢. sometimes). 


151. The following adverbs require special notice :— 
a. Etiam (et iam), a/so, even, is stronger than quoque, a/so, and 
usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it : as, — 


non verbis solum sed etiam vi (Verr. II. ii, 64), ot only by words, but 
also by force. 
hdc quoque maleficium (Rosc. Am. 118), this crime too. 


98 PARTICLES. [§ 151. 


6. Nunc (for tnum-ce) means definitely xow, in the immediate 
present, and is not used as in English of past time. Iam means xow, 
already, at length, presently, and includes a reference to previous time 
through which the state of things described has been or will be reached. 
It may be used of azy time. With negatives it means (zo) longer. 

Tum, then, is correlative to cum, when, and may be used of any 
time. Tune, then, at that time, is a strengthened form of tum 
ttum-ce, cf. nunc). Thus, — 

ut iam antea dixi, as / have already said before. 

siiam satis aetatis atque roboris habéret (Rosc. Am. 149), if he had 

attained a suitable age and strength (lit. if he now had, as he will by 
and by). 

non est iam lénitati locus, there is no longer room for mercy. 

quod iam erat institiitum, which had come to be a practice (had now been 

established). 

nunc quidem déléta est, tunc fldrébat (Lzl. 13), mow (’tis true) she 

[Greece] is ruined, then she was in her glory. 
tum cum régnabat, at the time when he reigned. 


c. Certo means certainly ; certé (usually), at any rate: as, certo 
scio, J know for a certainty; ego certé, J at any rate. 


d. Primum means jst, “firstly” (first in order or for the first 
time), and implies a series of events or acts. Prim6d means az jirst, 
as opposed to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference 
of time: as, — 

hoc primum sentio, this 7 hold in the first place. 

aedés primo ruere rébamur, at first we thought the house was falling. 

In enumerations, primum (or prim6) is often followed by deinde, 
secondly, in the next place, or by tum, then, or by both in succession. 
Deinde may be several times repeated (secondly, thirdly, etc.). The 
series is often closed by dénique or postrém6, /astly, finally. Thus, — 

primum dé genere belli, deinde dé magnitiidine, tum dé imperatore 

déligendd (Manil.), first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, 
then of the choice of a commander. 


e. Quidem, ¢o be sure, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive 
meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc. : as, — 


hdc quidem vidére licet (Lel. 54), THIS surely one may see. [Emphatic.] 

(s€éciiritas) specié quidem blanda, sed reapse multis locis repudianda (id. 
47), (tranquility) in appearance,’tis true, attractive, but in reality ta 
be rejected for many reasons. [Concessive. | 


§ 152.] PREPOSITIONS. 99 


Né ... quidem means wot even or not... either. The emphatic 
word or words must stand between né and quidem. 


senex né quod spéret quidem habet (C. M. 68), a” old man has NOT any- 
thing to hope for EVEN. 

sed né Iugurtha quidem quiétus erat (Jug. 51), but Jugurtha was not quiet 
EITHER. 


Il. PREPOSITIONS. 
152. Prepositions are regularly used either with the 
Accusative or with the Ablative. 


a. The following are used with the Accusative : — 


ad, fo. extra, outside. post, after. 

adversus, against. in, zz7o. praeter, deyond. 
adversum, towards. infra, below. prope, ear. 

ante, before. inter, among. propter, o7 account of. 
apud, az, xear. intra, zzside. secundum, ext fo. 
circa, around. iuxta, zear. sub, uuder. 

circum, around. ob, on account of. supra, above. 

circiter, about. penes, zz the power. trans, across. 

cis, citra, ‘his side. per, through. ultra, on the further side. 
contra, against. - pone, dehind. versus, owards. 


erga, towards. 
6. The following are used with the Ablative : — 


a, ab, abs, away from, by. in, 77. 

absque, without, but for. prae, 7% comparison with. 
cOram, zz presence of. pro, 72 front of, for. 
cum, wth. sine, without. 

dé, from. sub, under. 

6, ex, out of. tenus, uf fo, as far as. 


c. The following may be used with either the Accusative or the 
Ablative, but with a difference in meaning : — 


in, zzto, in. sub, under. 
subter, deneath. super, above. 


In and sub, when followed by the accusative, indicate motion fo, 
when by the ablative, ves¢ 7m, a place: as, — 


vénit in aedés, he came into the house ; erat in aedibus, he was in the house. 

sub ilice conséderat, he had seated himself under an ilex. 

sub légés mittere orbem, ¢o subject the world to Jaws (to send the world 
under laws). 


100 PARTICLES. [§§ 153-156. 


153. The uses of the Prepositions are various, and are 
explained in the dictionaries. 


Ill. CONJUNCTIONS. 


154. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sen- 
tences. They are of two classes : — 


a. CO-ORDINATE, connecting co-ordinate or similar constructions 
(see § 180. a). These are — 


1. Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or opposition 
of thought as well as of words : as, et, and. 

2. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in 
thought : as, sed, dzz. 

3. Causal, introducing a cause or reason : as, nam, for. 

4. Illative, denoting an inference : as, igitur, ‘herefore. 


6. SUBORDINATE, connecting a subordinate or dependent clause 
with that on which it depends (see § 180. 4). These are — 


1. Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis: as, si, i/; 
nisi, wzless. ; 

z. Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition ; as, ac 
si, as if. 

3. Concessive, denoting a concession or admission: as, quam- 
quam, although (lit. however much it may be true that, etc.). 

4. Temporal: as, postquam, after. 

5. Consecutive, expressing result: as, ut, so that. 

6. Final, expressing purpose : as, ut, 7” order that, né, that not. 


155. Conjunctions are more numerous and more accu- 
rately distinguished in Latin than in English. For clas- 
sified lists, see larger grammar. 


156. The following are the principal conjunctions 
whose meaning requires to be noticed :— 


a. Et, and, simply connects words or clauses; -que comdines more 
closely into one connected whole. -que is always enclitic to the word 
connected or to the first or second of two or more words connected. 
Thus, — 


= ? 
Pa 3 Sy Pees 275 
>> > 


§ 156.] CONJUNCTIONS.> >> » > >"> TOI 
cum coniugibus et liberis, with [their] wivescard childven> »% 9? >>> 
ferrd ignique, with fire and sword. [Not as separate things, but as the 

combined means of devastation. } 
aqua et igni interdictus, forbidden the use of water and fire. [Ina legal 
formula, where they are considered separately. ] 


Atque (ac) adds with some emphasis or with some implied re- . 
flection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and sa, 
and yet, and besides. But these distinctions depend very much upon 
the feeling of the speaker, and are often untranslatable : as, — 


omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and dishonorable 
(too, without the slightest distinction). 

sus atque disciplina, practice and theory beside (the more important or 
less expected). 

atque ego crédé, and yet J believe (for my part). 


In the second of two connected ideas, azd not is expressed by 
neque (nec): as, — 
neque vero hoc sdlum dixit, axd he not only said this. 


Atque (ac), in the sense of as, than, is also used after words of 
comparison and likeness: as, — - 


non secus (aliter) ac si, ot otherwise than if. 
pro ed ac débui, as was my duty (in accordance as I ought). 


6. Sed and the more emphatic vérum or vér0, Juz, introduce 
something in opposition to what precedes, especially after negatives 
(not this...but something else). At introduces with emphasis a 
new point in an argument, but is also used like the others. 

At enim almost always introduces a supposed objection which is 
presently to be overthrown. At is more rarely used alone in this 
sense. Autem, however, now, is the weakest of the adversatives, 
and often has hardly any adversative force perceptible. Atqui, 
however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and sometimes a 
fresh step in the reasoning. Quod si, but if, and if, now Zf, is used 
to continue an argument. Ast is old or poetic and is equivalent to at. 


NoTE.— A concessive is often followed by an adversative either in a co- 
ordinate or a subordinate clause: as, etiamsi quod scribas nén habébis, 
scribitd tamen (Cic.), though you have nothing to write, still write all the same. 


c. Aut, ov, excludes one alternative; vel and -ve give a choice 
between two. But this distinction is sometimes neglected. Thus, — 


sete 
cone 


s « 

Stk Saar ee 
s © 
e 


anne 


. © 
a, Ls © 


102  * PARTICLES. [§ 156. 


Ge fe tiet ES ote ll ie ee : 
_< sed tjuis “ego “Sunt ant “quae ést in mé facultas, dut who am I, or what 

special capacity have [? [Here vel could not be used, because in fact 
a negative is implied and both alternatives are excluded. ] 

quam tenui aut nulla potius valétidine, what feeble health [he had], or 
rather none at all. [Here vel might be used, but would refer only 
to the expression, not to the fact.] 

vita talis fuit vel fortiinad vel gloria, Ais life was such either in respect to 
JSortune or fame (whichever way you look at it). 

si propinquos habeant imbécillidrés vel anim6 vel fortiina, 7f they have 
relatives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (im either respect, 
for example). : 

cum cOgniti sunt et aut dedrum aut régum filii inventi, soms either of 


gods or of kings. [Here one case would exclude the other.] 


- 


Sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions (¢fezther .. . 
or tf), but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with 
two names for the same thing: as, — 

sive arridéns sive quod ita putaret (De Or. i. 91), ether laughingly 
or because he really thought so. 


Vel is often used with no alternative force : as, — 


vel minimus, che very east. 


@. Nam and namque, for, usually introduce a real reason, formally 
expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a 
less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way ; etenim 
(for, you see; for, you know, and its negative neque enim intro- 
duce something self-evident or needing no proof. 


(ea vita) quae est sola vita nbminanda. nam dum sumus in his incliisi 
compagibus corporis miinere quodam necessitatis et gravi opere per- 
fungimur. est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. Maj. 77). 

harum trium sententiarum nilli prorsus assentior. nec enim illa prima 
véra est, for of course that first one isn’t true. 


é. Ergo, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has 
a weakened force. Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than ergo 
and is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. 
Itaque, therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences 
from the nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. 

All of these are often used merely to resume a train of thought 
broken by a digression or parenthesis. Idcired, for this reason, on 
this account, is regularly followed (or preceded) by a correlative : as, 


§ 156.] CONJUNCTIONS. $03 


quia, quod, si, ut, né, and refers to the special point introduced by 
the correlative. " 

né aegri quidem quia non omnés convaléscunt, idcircé ars nilla me- 

dicinae est. : 
malum mihi vidétur mors. est miserum igitur, quoniam malum. certé. 
ergo et ei quibus événit iam ut morerentur et ei quibus éventirum 
est miseri. mihiita vidétur. ném6 ergd ndn miser. (Tusc. i. 9.) 
meministis enim cum illius nefarii gladiatoris vOcés percrébuissent quas, 
etc.— tum igitur (Mur. 50). 

SJ. Quia, because, regularly introduces a fact ; quod, either a fact 
or a statement. Quoniam (for quom iam), zzasmuch as, since, 
when now, now that, has reference to motives, excuses, or justifica- 
tions, and the like. Quando, szzce, is mostly archaic or late. 

possunt quia posse videntur, they can because they think they can. 

locus est 4 mé quoniam ita Miiréna voluit retractandus (Mur. 54), Z 

must review the point, since Murena has so wished. 

mé reprehendis quod idem défendam (as he had not) quod lége piinierim 

(Mur. 67), you blame me because [as you say] I defend the same 
charge which I have punished by law. 


In the denial of a reason, n6m quo is used as well as ndn quod, 
non quia, and non quin, but not ndn quoniam. Thus, — 

non quia multis débeo . . . sed quia saepe concurrunt aliquérum bene dé 

mé meritdrum inter ipsds contentidnés (Planc. 78), sot because J am 
indebted to many, but because, etc. 

non quin pari virtiite et voluntate alii fuerint, sed tantam causam non 

habuérunt (Phil. vii. 6), ot that there were not others of equal courage 
and good-will, but they had not so much reason. 

g. Cum (quom), when, is always a relative, and is often correla- 
tive with tum, (see 4. 1, below); quand6, when (rarely since), is 
used as interrogative, relative, and indefinite: as, quandd? hodié, 
when? to-day; si quando, if ever. 

A. 1. Conjunctions, especially those of relative origin, frequently 
have a correlative in another clause, to which they correspond : as, — 

ut sémentem féceris, ita metés, as you sow, so shall you reap. 

2. Often the same conjunction is repeated in two co-ordinate 
clauses. Examples are — 


et... et, doth... and. 
modo ...modo, zow... now. 
nunc... nunc, zow... now. 


tog” FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 157. 


z. The concessives (etsi, quamvis, etc., a/though) may introduce 
either a fact or a mere supposition, and are often followed by the cor- 
relative tamen, yet, nevertheless; qaamquam regularly introduces 
an admitted fact and not a mere supposition. 

Quamquam (and rarely etsi, tametsi) in the sense of shough 
(and yet, but, however) may also introduce an independent state- 
ment made to limit or correct the preceding : as, — 

ille volt diti vivere, hic dit vixit, quamquam, 6 di boni, quid est in 

hominis vita dii? (Cat. M. 68), the one wishes to live long, the 
other has lived long, though (after all) Good Heavens! what is there 
that is long in the life of man ? 


&. Autem, enim, and vérd are postpositive, ze. they always 


follow one or more words of their clause; so, generally, igitur and 
often tamen. 


INTERJECTIONS. 
O, &n, ecce, ehem, papae, vah (of astonishment). 
id, vae, Evoe, euhoe (of joy). 
heu, é6heu, vae, a/as (of sorrow). 
heus, eho, ehodum, 4o (of calling) ; st, hist. 
Gia, euge (of Zrazse). 
pro (of attestation) : as, pro pudor, shame! 


FORMATION OF WORDS. 


Note. — All formation of words is originally a process of composition. 
An element significant in itself is added to another significant element, and 
thus the meaning of the two is combined. 


I. ROOTS AND STEMS. 


157. Roots! are of two kinds :— 


1. Verbal, expressing ideas of action or condition (sensi- 
ble phenomena). 
2. Pronominal, expressing ideas of position and direc- 
tion. 
1 For the distinction between Roots and Stems, see §§ 21, 22. 


§§ 158-160.] SUFFIXES. 105 


Stems are divided into (1) Noun- (including Adjec- 
tive-) stems, and (2) Verb-stems. 


158. Words are formed by inflection :— 
1. From roots inflected as stems, — 


a. Without change: as, duc-is (dux), DUC; nec-is (nex); is, 
id. Soin verbs: as, est, fert, ést. 

6. With change of the root-vowel : as, liic-is (ltix), LUC ; pac-is 
(pax). So in verbs: i-s for teis, from e6, ire; fatur, from for, fari. 


Nore. — It is impossible to say whether the form of root ina or in 4 
is the original one. But for convenience the above order is adopted. 


c. With reduplication: as, fur-fur, mar-mor, mur-mur. So in 
verbs : as, si-st6 (root STA). 
2. From derived stems ; see § 159. 


Il. SUFFIXES. 


159. Stems are derived from roots or from other stems 
by means of suffixes. These are — 


1. Primary: added to the root, or (later by analogy) to verb- 
stems. 

2. Secondary : added to a noun- or adjective-stem. 

Both primary and secondary suffixes are for the most part pronom- 
inal roots (§ 157. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin. Thus a word 
regularly consists of a verbal root and one or more pronominal roots 
and inflectional terminations. 


1. Primary Suffixes. 


160. The words in Latin formed immediately from the 
root by means of Primary suffixes are few. 


a. Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed by 
the addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective /one-ly- 
some-tsh, meaning nothing more than Jone, lonely, or lonesome. 

4. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were 
formed which crowded out even the old types of derivation: thus, — 


% 
106 FORMATION OF WORDS. [$§ 161, 162. 


A word like méns, mentis, by the suffix Gn- (nom. -3) gave menti6, 
and this being divided into men + tid, gave rise to a new type of 
abstract nouns in -tid (phonetically -sid): as, légatid, embassy. 

A word like auditor, by the suffix io- (nom. -ius), gave rise to 
adjectives like auditdrius, of which the neuter is used to denote the 
place where the action of the verb is performed. Hence -t6rium, n., 
becomes a regular suffix (§ 164. z. 5). 

So in English such a word as mechanically gives a suffix -ally, 
making Zelegraphically, though there is no such word as ¢elegraph- 
tcal, 

c. Examples of primary suffixes are — 


1. Vowel suffixes: as, — 

a, found in nouns and adjectives of a- and o-stems: as, sonus, ludus, 
vagus, scriba, toga (root TEG). 
2. Suffixes with a consonant: as, — 

ta (in the form to-) in the regular perfect passive participle, as téctus, 
téctum ; sometimes with an active sense, as in potus, pransus; and found 
in a few words not recognized as participles, as putus (cf. pirus), altus (ald). 

va (commonly uo-) with an active or passive meaning, as in ecus, arvum, 
conspicuus, exiguus, vacivus (vacuus). 


2. Significant Endings. 


161. Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially 
in the form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with 
more or less consciousness of their meaning. They may 
therefore be called Significant Endings. 

They form: 1. Nouns of Agency ; 2. Names of Ac- 
tion ; 3. Adjectives (active or passive). 


Ill. DERIVATION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 
1. Nouns of Agency. 

162. Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or 
doer of an action. But they include many words in 
which the idea of agency has entirely faded out, and also 
many words used as adjectives. Their significant endings 
are — 


§ 163.] NOUNS OF AGENCY. 107 


a. -tor (-sor), M., -trix, F., added to roots or verb-stems to denote 
the agent or doer of an action. 

cand, sizg (CAN, supine teantum); cantor, s7zger; cantrix, song- 

stress. ; 

tonded, shear (TOND as root, sup. tOnsum); tOnsor, tonstrix, 

hatr-cutter. 

By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noun-stems as if stems 
of lost verbs : as, viator, ¢ravedler, from via, way (but cf. invio). 

6. t- (originally ta-, cf. § 160. c), c., added to verb-stems making 
nouns in -es (-itis, -etis, stem -it-, -et-) descriptive of a character : 
as, — 

teges (verb-stem tege-, cf. teg6, cover), a coverer, a mat. 


c. -6 (gen. -Onis, stem Gn-), M., added to stems conceived as 
verb-stems (but perhaps originally noun-stems) to indicate a person 
employed in some specific art or trade: as, — 

gero (GES in gerd, gerere, carry, but compare -ger in armiger, 

Squire), a carrier. 
com-bib6 (BIB as root in bibd, bibere, drink), a pot-companion. 


2. Names of Actions. 


163. Names of Actions are derived (1) really or appar- 
ently from roots and verb-stems (primary) or (2) from 
noun-stems (secondary). 

NoTe.— These easily pass into pure Concrete nouns denoting the result, 


means, or instrument of the action. Compare az apparition, a congregation, 
a rainfall, a large following, a drive of logs. 


1. Real or Apparent Primary Formations. 

a. -or (st. Sr-, earlier Gs-), M., -6s (gen. -is, st. i-, earlier e8-), F., 
-us (st. 6s-, or os-), N., added to roots make names of actions : as, — 

timed, fear (verb); tim-or, fear (noun). 

sedeo, sit; séd-€s, seat. 

decet, z¢ zs becoming; dec-us, grace, beauty. 

Nore. — Many nouns of this class are formed by analogy from imaginary 
roots : as, facinus (from a supposed root FACIN). 

4. -i6 (st. i6n-), -tid (st. tion-), -tiira (st. ttira-), F., -tus (st. tu-), 
- M., (phonetically -si6, -siira, -sus), apparently added to roots or verb- 
stems, make verbal abstracts. 2 


108 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 163. 


lego, exroll,; leg-id (ax enrolling, the thing enrolled), a legion. 
rego, direct; reg-i0, a direction, a region. 

inser6 (SA), 2mpPlant, insi-tio, grafting. 

vocs, call; voca-tid, a calling. ~ 

mOlior, foz/,; moli-tio, a ¢ozling. 

pingo (PIG), faint; pic-tira, the art of painting, a painting. 
sentio, fec/; sén-sus, feeling, perception, a feeling. 

fruor, exjoy (for tfruguor); frtic-tus, exjoyment, frutt, a fruit. 


¢. -men, -mentum, -mOnium, N., -mOnia, F., apparently added to 
roots or verb-stems denote ACTS, or MEANS and RESULTS of acts. 


ago, root AG, /ead, ag-men, Line of march, a company. 
regi-men, rz/e. 
regi-mentum, rz/e. 

So colu-men, ~7//ay ; mOd-men, movement; nO-men, xzame. 
fruor, ezjoy ; fru-mentum, grain. 

testor, witness; testi-mOnium, Zes¢z7mony. 

queror, complain, queri-mOnia, complaint. 

Also fla-men (M.), a Priest (£16, blow, of the sacrificial fire). 


regi- (stem seen in rego, drecr) ; ; 


REMARK. —-m6nium and -mOnia are also used as secondary, form- 
ing nouns from other nouns and from adjectives: as, sancti-mOnia, 
sanctity (sanctus, holy); matri-monium, marriage (mater, mother). 


ad. -bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -trum, N., added to verb-stems 
or roots (rarely to noun-stems), denote MEANS, INSTRUMENT, or 
PLACE : as, — 

pasco, feed, pa-bulum, fodder. 

sto, stand; sta-bulum, sta// (standing-place). 

tus (gen. tiris), zucense; turi-bulum, a censer. 

veho, carry ; vehi-culum, wagon. 

pio, purify, pia-culum, az expiation. 

f16, blow ; fla-bra (pl.), dlasts. 

candéla, a candle; candéla-brum, a candlestick. 

sepelio, dury ; sepul-crum, tomb (place for burying). 

claud6, shut; claus-trum, a dar. 


A few Masculines and Feminines of the same formation occur as , 
nouns and adjectives : as, — 

for, sfeak ; fa-bula, Zale. 

rided, /augh; ridi-culus, /aughadle. 


§ 163.] NAMES OF ACTIONS. 109 


facid, make; fa-ber, smith. 

lated, Aide; late-bra, hiding-place. 
terd, ore; tere-bra, auger. 
mulged, mz/k; mile-tra, mi/k-pazl. 
tird, durn,; Aus-ter, South wind. 


2. Secondary Formations. 


é. -ia, -tia (-i€s, -tiés), -tas, -tis, -ttidd, F., are added to adjective 
stems and a few to nouns to make abstracts. So -d6 and -g6, F 
but associated with verbs, and apparently added to wirtishacii 
Thus, — 


audax, dod; audac-ia, boldness. So, fidtic-ia, confidence (} fidtx). 

prudéns, wise; prudent-ia, wisdom. 

superbus, proud; superb-ia, pride. 

tristis, sad; tristi-tia, sadness. 

pauper, joor,; pauper-iés, overty. 

ségnis, /azy, ségni-tiés, /aziness. 

bonus, good, boni-tas, goodness. 

Civis, citizen; civi-tas, citizenship. 

senex, o/d; senec-tis, age. 

solus, alone; soli-tudod, solitude. 

dulcis, sweet; Aulcé-do, sweetness (probebly from a lost stem 

dulcé-, cf. dulcé-sco). 

cupio, / desire; cupi-do (as if from stem cupi-, cf. cupi-vi). 

lumbus, ¢he Join; lumba-g6, /umbago (as if from + lumbé, are). 

rubus, dramble (red bush) ; ruibi-go, vws¢ (redness). 

prurio, z/ch,; priiri-g6, z¢ching. 

Stems ending in o- or a- lose these vowels before -ia (as superb-ia), 
and change them to i before -tas, -tiis, -tia (as boni-tas, above). 

Consonant-stems often insert -i before -tas: as, loquax (stem 
loquac-), loquaci-tas; but hones-tas, maies-tas (as if from old ad- 
jectives in -es), tiber-tas, volup-tas. o after i is changed to e: as, 
pius (stem pio-), pie-tas; socius, socie-tas (see § 11. @). 

jf. -tum, -tium, added to noun- and perhaps verb-stems, form 
neuter abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting OFFICES 
and: GROUPS: as, — 

hospes (gen. hospit-is), a guest; hospit-ium, hospitality, an inn. 

servus, a slave; servi-tium, slavery, the slave class. 


IIo FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 164. 


colléga, a colleague; collég-ium, colleagueship, a college. 

auspex, @ soothsayer; auspic-ium, soothsaying, an omen. 

gaudeo, rejoice; gaud-ium, joy. 

benefacio, denefit,; benefic-ium, a kindness (but cf. beneficus). 

dé-sidero, mzss (from + dé-sidés, out of place, of missing soldiers) ; 

désider-ium, longing. 

effugio, escape; effug-ium, ax escape (cf. profugus). 

ad verbum, [added] /o a verb; adverb-ium, az adverb. 

inter-lunas, defween moons; interlin-ium, ¢ime of new moon. 

régis fuga, flight of a king; régifug-ium, flight of kings. 

Vowel-stems lose their vowel before -ium, as collég-ium, from 
colléga. 

Less commonly -nia, F., -nium, -lium, -cinium, N., are added to 
noun-stems, but confused with verb-stems: as, — 


pect, cattle; pecti-nia, property consisting of cattle, money 
(cf. chattels). 

conticéscd, iush,; contici-nium, the hush of night. 

augeo, zzcrease; auxi-lium, help. 

pect, cattle; pect-lium, private property (cf. pectilor, implying 
a noun fpectlum). 

latro, robber, latro-cinium, robdery (cf. latrOcinor, rod, implying 
an adj. } latrocinus). 


3. Adjectives. 


164. Derivative adjectives are Nominal (from nouns or 
adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots or verb-stems). 


I. NOMINAL. 


a. -ulus (-a, -um) (after a vowel -olus), -culus, -ellus, -illus, make — 
an important class of adjectives, usually appropriated to one gender, 
that of the Primitive, and used as DIMINUTIVE NOUNS: as,— 

rivus, a brook; riv-ulus, a streamlet. 

gladius, a sword, gladi-olus, a small sword. 

filius, a soz, fili-olus, a /zttle son. 

filia, a daughter; fili-ola, a little daughter. 

atrium, a hall; atri-olum, a /ittle hall. 

homo, a man; homun-culus, a dwarf. 


§ 164.] ADJECTIVES. II! 


auris, az car; auri-cula, a /ittle ear. 

munus, N., 2 gift; muUnus-culum, a /itt/e gift. 

tpuera (cf. puer, a doy); puella (for tpuer-ula), a gzr/. 

codex, a block; cddic-illi, writing-tablets. 

miser, wretched; mis-ellus, rather wretched. 

liber, a dook ; lib-ellus, a /ittle book. 

aureus (-a, -um), go/den ; aure-olus (-a, -um), golden. 

parvus (-a, -um), /¢//e,; parv-olus (later parv-ulus), very small. 
maior (old maids), greater ; maius-culus, somewhat larger. 


REMARK.— -cid, added to stems in n-, has the same diminutive 
force, but is added to masculines only: as, homun-cid, a dwar} 
(from hom6, @ wan). 


b. -adés, M., -as, F., -idés, -idés, M., -is, -6is, F., -6us, -eus, M., 
are added to proper names, forming PATRONYMICS, to indicate descent 
or relationship. 


These, originally Greek adjectives, have almost all become nouns 
in Latin: as, — 

Tyndareus: Tyndar-idés, Castor or Pollux; Tyndar-is (gen. 
-idis), Helen, daughter of Tyndarus. 

Atlas: Atlanti-adés, Mercury ; Atlant-idés (Gr. pl. )s the Pleiads. 

Scipio: Scipi-adés, son of Scipio. 

Anchisés: Anchisi-adés, Zxeas. 

Théseus: Thés-idés, soz of Theseus. 

Tydeus: Tyd-idés, Diomedes, son of Tydeus. 

Oileus: Aiax Oil-éus, son of Oileus. 

Thaumas: Thaumanti-as (gen. -adis), /ris, daughter of Thaumas. 

Hesperus : Hesper-idés (from Hesper-is, idis), F. pl., he daughters 
of Hesperus, the Hesperides. 


¢. anus, -6nus, -inus; -as, -6nsis, -acus (-dcus), -icus; -éus 
(generally shortened to -éus), -Gius, -icius, form adjectives with the 
sense of BELONGING TO. 


1. So from common nouns : as, — 

mOns (st. monti-), »ountain ; mont-anus, of the mountains. 
ante licem, defore light; anteliic-anus, defore daylight. 
eged, Jack; eg-énus, zcedy. 

terra, earth; terr-énus, earthly. 


112 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 164. 


collis, /z//, coll-inus, of a hzi/. 

libertus, one’s freedman,; libert-inus, of the class of freedmen. 
vitulus, a ca/f,; vitul-ina (sc. card), veal. 

quis, who? culi-as, of what country ? 

infimus, /owes? ; infim-as, of the lowest rank. 

forum, a market-place; for-6nsis, of a market-place, or the Forum. 
merum, pure wine; mer-acus, pure. 

Civis, a citizen ; Civ-icus, civic, of a citizen. 

fémina, a woman, fémin-eus, of a woman, feminine. 

lac, milk (st. lacti-); lact-eus, mz/ky. 

plébés, zie commons ; pléb-éius, of the commons, plebeian, 
pater, father; patr-icius, patrician. 


2. But especially from proper nouns (names of places, peoples, 
and persons) denoting BELONGING TO or COMING FROM : as, — 


Roma: Rom-anus, Roman. 

Sulla: Sull-ani, Su//a’s veterans. 

CYyzicus: Cyzic-éni, Cyzicenes, people of Cyzicus. 

Liguria: Ligur-inus, of Liguria. 

Arpinum: Arpin-as, of Arpinum (cf. Samnium: Samnis, gen. 
-Itis, a Samnite). 

Sicilia: Sicili-nsis, Sicilian. 

Tum, 7yoy ; Hi-acus, Zvojan (a Greek form). 

Plato: Platon-icus, Platonic. 

Aquila: Aquil-éius, a Roman name, Aquiléia, a town in Italy. 


3. Many derivative adjectives with these endings have by usage 
become nouns. Thus, — 


silva, woods ; Silv-anus, M., a god of the woods. 

membrum, //7z) ; membr-ana, F., s#77. 

-Aemilia (géns) ; Aemili-anus, M., zame of Scipio Africanus. 
lanius, butcher ; lani-6na, F., a dutcher’s stall. 

tAufidius (Aufidus), M.; Aufidi-6énus, a Roman name. 
incola, an inhabitant; inquil-inus, M., a dodger. 

caecus, 4/ind ; Caec-ina, used as M., a Roman name. 

gallus, a cock, gall-ina, F., a hen. 

ru6, fa// (no noun existing); ru-ina, F., a /a//. 

doctor, feacher ; doctr-ina, F., /earning. 


$265) ADJECTIVES. 113 


d. -alis, -aris, -6lis, -ilis, Hlis, -nus, PERTAINING TO, of various 
modes of relation or possession, but not used as Gentile adjectives : 
as, — 

natura, zafure,; natur-alis, natural. 

populus, a people; popul-aris, fe//ow-countryman. 

patruus, wzcle; patru-élis, cousin. 

hostis, an enemy ; host-ilis, hostz/e. 

currus, chariot; sella cur-ulis, curule chair. 

ver, spring; vér-nus, vernal. 


é. -ter (-tris), -ester (-estris), -timus, -ernus, -urnus, -ternus 
(-turnus), BELONGING TO, of Alaces, times, and the like (but some are 
general adjectives). 


palus, 2 marsh; palis-ter, of the marshes. 

pedes, a footman ; pedes-ter, of the foot. 

sex ménsés, six months ; semeés-tris, semz-annual. 
silva, a wood, silv-ester, silv-estris, woody. 

finis, ax end; fini-timus, neighboring, on the borders. 
heri (old hesi), yesterday ; hés-ternus, of yesterday. 
diu, Jong (in time); diti-turnus, /asting. 

hodié, fo-day ; hodi-ernus, of to-day. 

diés, day ; di-urnus, daily. 


fj. -atus, -itus, -Utus, PROVIDED WITH, make adjectives with parti- 
cipial ending, formed from nouns, but in reference to an imaginary 
verb-stem (cf. the English horned, crested, hooked). 

barba, a beard, barb-atus, bearded. 

auris, am car; aur-itus, /ong-eared. 

versus, a turning; vers-Utus, crafty, adroit (full of turns). 


So -tus, added directly to nouns without reference to any verb: 
as, — 

finus, death ; fanes-tus, deadly. 

honor, ionor ; hones-tus, honoradle. 

favor, favor ; faus-tus (for tfaves-tus), favorable. 


g. ~eus, -ius, -aceus, -icius, -aneus (-neus), -ticus, MADE OF or 
BELONGING TO, form adjectives of various meanings : as, — 

aurum, go/d; aur-eus, golden. 

pater, a father; patr-ius, paternal. 

uxor, a wife; uxOr-ius, wxorious. 


Il4 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 164. © 


rosa, @ rose ; ros-aceus, of roses. 

later, a brick ; later-icius, of brick. 

praeséns, present; praesent-aneus, oferating instantly. 
extra, without, extr-aneus, external. 

sub terra, underground; subterr-aneus, subterranean. 
salix, wi//ow ,; salig-neus, of w7llow. 

vold, fly; vola-ticus, wizged (volatus, a flight). 
domus, a house ; domes-ticus, of the house, domestic. 
silva, a wood, silva-ticus, sylvan. 


A. -arius, -torius (-sdrius), BELONGING TO, make many adjectives 
often fixed as nouns (see 7). 

Ordo, rank, order ; Ordin-arius, regular. 

argentum, s7/ver ; argent-arius, of s¢/ver or money. 

extra, outside; extr-arius, stranger. 

meritus, carved; meri-torius, Arofitadle. 

dévorsus, turned aside ; A6vor-sOrius, of an inn (cf. z. 5). 

z, Many fixed forms of the above adjective suffixes make nouns, 
more or less regularly used in particular senses : as, — 

1. -arius (regular), Jerson employed about anything: as,— 

argent-arius, sz/versmith, broker (from argentum). 

2. -aria, thing connected with something: as, — 

arén-ariae, F. pl., sazdpits (from aréna, sand ). 

Asin-aria, F., name of a play (from asinus, ass). 

3. -arium (regular), place of a thing (with a few of more general 
meaning) : as, — 

aer-arium, N., ‘veasury (from aes, copper). 

tepid-arium, N., warm bath (from tepidus, warm). 

sud-arium, N., a towel (cf. sud, -are, sweat). 

sal-arium, N., sa/¢t money, salary (from sal, sa/?). 

calend-arium, N., a note-book (from calendae, ca/ends). 

4. -toria (-sdria): as, — 

Agita-toria, F., a play of Plautus, 7ze Carter (from agitator). 

vor-soria, F., a fack (from vorsus, a furn). 


5. -torium (-sdrium) (regular), place of action (with a few of 
more general meaning) : as, — 


§ 164.] ADJECTIVES. 115 


dévor-sorium, N., az izn (as from dévort6, turn aside). 
audi-torium, N., @ lecture-room (as from audio, hear). 
ten-torium, N., @ fent (as from tendo, stretch). 
téc-torium, N., A/aster (as from tego, téctus, cover). 
por-torium, Nn., fo// (cf. port, carry, and portus, harédor). 


6. -ile, animal-stall; as, — 


bov-ile, N., cattle-stall (bOs, bovis, ox, cow). 
‘ov-ile, sheep-fold (ovis, st. ovi-, sheep). 


7. -al for -ale, ching connected with the primitive : as, — — 


capit-al, N., head-dress, capital crime (caput, head). 

penetr-ale (esp. in pl.), N., zwner apartment (cf. penetrd). 

Saturn-alia, Nn. pl. (the regular form for xames of festivals), feast 
of Saturn (from Saturnus). 


8. -6tum, N. (cf. -atus, -tus, see /), Place of a thing ; as, — 
querc-étum, N., oak grove (from quercus, oak). 
Argil-6tum, N., Zhe Clay-pit (from argilla, clay). 


g. -cus (sometimes with inserted i, -icus), -icus, in any one of the 
genders, with various meanings : as, — 


vili-cus, M., vili-ca, F., a steward (stewardess) (from villa, farm- 
house). 

fabr-ica, F., a workshop (from faber, workman). 

bubul-cus, M., ox-tender (from butb-ulus, dim., cf. bds, 07). 

cant-icum, N., song (from cantus, act of singing). 

rubr-ica, F., ed paint (from ruber, red ). 


IO. -eus, -ea, -eum, with various meanings : as, — 


alv-eus, M., a ¢vough (from alvus, ¢he belly). 
capr-ea, F., a@ voe (from caper, he-goat). 
flamm-eum, N., @ bridal veil (from flamma, //ame, from its color). 


11. -ium, confounded with the primary suffix (see § 163. f). 
12, -ter (stem tro-) and -ter (stem tri-), -aster -ester: as, — 


Aus-ter, M., South wind (from tro, burn). 

eques-ter, M., knight (for tequet-ter). 

sequ-ester, M., a stake-holder (from derivative of sequor, fo//ow). 
ole-aster, M., wz/d olive (from olea) (cf. surd-aster, from surdus). 


116 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 164 


&. -Osus, -(o)léns, -(o)lentus, FULL OF, PRONE TO: as, — 
flictus, wave; flictu-dsus, d2/lowy. 

forma, deauty ; form-Osus, beautiful. 

periculum, #eri/ ; pericul-dsus, fu// of danger. 

pestis, Jest, pesti-léns, pesti-lentus, Jestilent. 

vinum, wive; vino-lentus, vin-Osus, given fo drink. 


II. VERBAL. 


/. -ax, -idus, -ulus, -vus- (-uus, -ivus, -tivus), PRONE TO, FITTED 
TO, apparently! added to verb-stems, form adjectives, to express 
the action of a verb as a QUALITY or TENDENCY. -ax, denotes a 
faulty or aggressive tendency ; -tivus is oftener passive. Thus, — 

pugno, fight; pugn-ax, pugnacious. 

audeo, dare; aud-ax, bold. 

cupio, desire; cup-idus, eager. 

bibo, drink ; bib-ulus, ¢hirsty (as dry earth, etc.). 

protero, trample; proter-vus, violent, wanton. 

noced, do harm; noc-uus (noc-ivus), hurtful, injurious. 

capio, ‘ake; cap-tivus, captive, M., a prisoner of war. 

recido, fall back ; recid-ivus, restored. 


m. -ilis, -bilis, -ius, -tilis (-silis), express PASSIVE QUALITIES, but 
occasionally active : as, — 

frango (FRAG), break; frag-ilis, fraz/, breakable. 

n6dsco (GNO), know ; nO-bilis, well known, famous. 

eximo, fake out, select; exim-ius, choice, rare (cf. Secs 

ago, drive, ag-ilis, active. 

habeo, fo/d,; hab-ilis, handy. 

alo, xourish ; al-tilis, fattened. 

m. -minus, -mnus, are properly participial (cf. Greek -evos, and 
ama-mini). They form a few nouns in which the participial force 
is discernible : as, — 

FE, produce; fé-mina, woman (the producer). 

ald, zourish; alu-mnus, a foster child, nursling. 

o. -ndus (the same as the gerund-ending) forms a few active or 
reflexive adjectives : as, — 


1 The forms felt as verbal are, like the nominal forms, derived from 
noun-stems, and the two are constantly confounded. 


§ 164.] ADJECTIVES. 117 


sequor, follow ; secu-ndus, second (the following), favoradle. 
roto, whirl (from rota, wheel) ; rotu-ndus, round (whirling). 


p. -bundus, -cundus, with a participfial meaning, but denoting 
continuance of the act or quality. 


iocus, a jest, it-cundus, A/easant (cf. iuvo, -are). 
vito, shun ; vita-bundus, dodging about. 

tremo, ¢remble; treme-bundus, trembling. 

morior, de; mori-bundus, at the point of death. 
for, sfeak ; fa-cundus, eloguent. 

FE, Produce; fé-cundus, fruitful. 

So, ira, anger; ira-cundus, zrascible (cf. ira-scor). 


III. IRREGULAR DERIVATIVES. 


g. The primary suffix On, (nom. -G) is used as secondary to form 
nouns (originally adjectives), denoting POSSESSED OF and so express- 
ing a character, often used as proper names*: as, — 


epulae, a feast; epul-d, a feaster. 

nasus, a “ose; nas-0, with a large nose (also as a proper name). 
-volus (in bene-volus), wishing; vol-Onés (pl.), volunteers. 
frons, forehead; front-6, big-head (also as a proper name). 

So, clria, a curia; curi-6, head of a curia (also as proper name). 
restis, a rope; resti-6, a rope-maker. 

+ vespertilis, of the evening ; vespertili-6, a dat. 


r. Rarely suffixes are added to compound stems imagined, but not 
used in their compound form : as, — 


ad-verb-ium, adverb ; ad, to, and verbum, verd, but without the 
intervening + adverbus. : 

lati-fund-ium, /arge estate; latus, wide, fundus, estate. 

su-ove-taur-ilia, a sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull; sis, 
swine, ovis, sheep, taurus, du//, where the primitive would be 
impossible in Latin. 


1Compare volvendis ménsibus, 7 the revolving months (Virg.). 
2 This suffix is the same as in § 162. c, but not connected with a verb. 


118 FORMATION OF WORDS. [$$ 165, 166. 


IV. DERIVATION OF VERBS. 


165. Verbs may be classed as Primitive or Derivative. 


1. Primitive verbs are those inherited by the Latin 
from the parent speech. 

2. Derivative verbs are those formed in the develop- 
ment of the Latin as a separate language. They are of 
two main classes :— 


a. DENOMINATIVE VERBS, formed from nouns or adjectives. 
4. Verbs apparently derived from other verbs (see § 167). 


1. Denominative Verbs. 


166. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every 
form of noun- and adjective-stem. 


a. 1. Verbs of the first conjugation are formed directly from 
a-stems, regularly with a transitive meaning : as, fuga, fight; fugo, 
put to flight; belliger, belligero (not bellum and gero, which would 
be impossible). 


Nore. — Originally particular forms of stem formed particular conjuga- 
tions of verbs, but from changes of stem and from various cross-analogies 
the relation between conjugations and stem-forms became entirely confused. 
Thus poena should make f¢ pinare, but it really makes piinire, as if an i-stem 
(as in impiini-s) ; servus makes servare in one sense, servire in another. 


2. Many verbs of the First Conjugation (commonly transitive) are 
formed from o-stems, changing the o- into a-. Thus, — 


stimulus, z@ goad (stem stimulo-); stimuld (-are), zncze. 

aecus, even (stem aequo-); aequo (-are), make even. 

hibernus, of ‘ie winter (stem hiberno-); hibern6, pass the winter. 

albus, white (stem albo-); alb6d (-are), whiten. 

pius, pure (stem pio-); pid (-are), expiate. 

3. A few verbs, generally neuter, are formed by analogy from con- 
sonant- and u- stems, adding a to the stem : as, — 

vigil, awake ; vigild (-are), watch. 

exsul, av exile ; exsuld (-are), de in exile. 


§ 167.] DERIVATION OF VERBS. 119g 


hiemps (stem hiem-), winter; hiemd (-are), Jass the winter. 
aestus, fide, seething ; aestud (-are), surge, boil. 
levis (stem levi-), /ight; levO (-are), dighien. 


-6. A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally intransitive) 
are recognizable as formed from noun-stems, but most are inherited, . 
or the primitive noun-stem is lost : as, — 


albus, white; albeo, de white (cf. alb6, -are, whzten, under a. 2). 
canus (stem cano-), hoary ; caned, be hoary. 

tumulus, /2// (implying ¢ tumus, swe//ing); tumed, swell. 
pro-vidus, foreseeing ; prO-vided, foresce. — 

But moned, remind; cf. memini, remember. 

alges, de cold; cf. algidus, cold. 


c. Some verbs in -u6, -uere are formed from noun-stems in u- 
where probably an i has been lost : as, — 

status, Josztion ; statud, set up. 

metus, fear; metud, fear. 


@. Many verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are formed from real or 
imagined i-stems: as, — 

molés (-is), #ass ; mOlior, -iri, foz/. 

finis, evd,; finid, -ire, dound. 

sitis, ‘izrst, sitio, -ire, thirst. 

stabilis, stable; stabilid, -re, establish. 


Some wrongly from other stems treated as if i-stems : as, — 


bulla, dudd/e; bullid, -ire, doz/. 

condus, storekeeper ; condi, -ire, preserve. 
insanus, 7zad, insanio, -ire, rave. 

gestus, gesture ; gestio, -ire, show wild longing. 
custos, evardian ; Ccustddio, -ire, evard. 


2. Verbs from other Verbs. 


167. The following classes of verbs regularly derived 
from other verbs have special meanings connected with 
their terminations, 


120 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 167. 


a. INCEPTIVES or INCHOATIVES add -scd to the present stem of 
verbs. They denote the deginning of an action. Of some there is 
no simple verb in existence. Thus, — 


caled, de warm ; calé-scd, grow warm. 

labo, totter ; laba-scd, begin to totter. 

scio, know ; sci-sco, determine. 

cupio, desire; con-cupi-sco, conceive a desire for. 

ald, feed; ale-scd, grow. 

So, ira-scor, get angry ; cf. ira-tus. 

iuvene-sco, grow young, cf. iuvenis, young man. 

vespera-scit, z¢ 7s getting late; cf. vesper, evening. 

Nore. — Inceptives properly have only the present stem, but many use 
the perfect and supine systems of simple verbs: as, caléscé, calui; profi- 
ciscor, profectus. : 

6. INTENSIVES or ITERATIVES é€nd in -t6 or -it (rarely -86), and 
denote a forcible or repeated action : as, — 


iacid, throw; iac-to, hurl. 

dico, say ; dict-ito, keep on saying. 

quatio, shake; quas-s0, shatter. 

They are of the first conjugation, and are properly denominative, 
derived from the participle in -tus (stem to-). 

c. Another form of Intensives — sometimes called Meditatives, or 
verbs of practice — ends in -ess6 (rarely -issd). These denote exergy 
or eagerness of action: as, — 

capio, sake; cap-esso, Jay hold on. 

facio, do; fac-essd, do (with energy). 

peto, seek; pet-issd, seek (eagerly). 

These are of the third conjugation, usually having the perfect and 
supine of the fourth : as, — 


lacesso, lacessére, lacessivi, lacessitum, provoke. 


ad. DIMINUTIVES (derived from real or supposed diminutive nouns) 
end in -illo, and denote a /feed/e or petty action: as, — 

cavilla, razllery ; cav-illor, jest. 

canto, sing, cant-illo, chirp or warble. 

é. DESIDERATIVES end in -turid (-surid), and express /onging or 
wishing. They are of the fourth conjugation, and only cates are in 
common use : — 


§ 168.] COMPOUND WORDS. 121 


emo, buy ; emp-turid, want to buy. 

edo, cat; &-surid, be hungry. 

pario, bring forth ; pax-turid, be in labor. 

Nore. — Desideratives are derived from some noun of agency: as, 
empturid, from emptor, duyer. Visd, go Zo see, is an inherited desiderative of 
a different formation. 


3. Compound Words. 


A Compound Word is one whose stem is made up of 


two or more simple stems. 
Only noun-stems can be thus compounded. A preposition, how- 
ever, often becomes attached to a verb. 


168. Newstems are formed by composition, as follows :1 


a. The second part is simply added to the first : as, — 


su-ove-taurilia (sts, ovis, taurus), ‘he sacrifice of a hog, sheep, 
and bull (cf. § 164. 7). 
septen-decim (septem, decem), seventeen. 


&. The first part modifies the second as an adjective or adverb 
(Determinative Compounds) : as, — 


lati-fundium (latus, fundus), a /arge landed estate. 


c. The first part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal 
force (Objective Compounds) : as, — i 


agri-cola (ager, {cola akin to cold), a farmer. 
armi-ger (arma, tger akin to gerd), avmor-bearer. 
corni-cen (cornt, ¢cen akin to cand), horn-blower. 
carni-fex (card, tfex akin to facid), executioner. 


1 In these compounds only the second part receives inflection, commonly 
the proper inflection of the last stem; but, as this kind of composition is 
older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection of 
its own (as, cornicen, -cinis; licifer, -feri; itidex, -dicis), from stems not 
occurring in Latin. Especially do compound adjectives take the form of 
i-stems: as, animus, exanimis; norma, abnormis.(see note, p. 23). In com- 
position stems regularly have their uninflected form: as, igni-spicium, 
divining by fire. But o- and a-stems weaken the final vowel of the stem to 
i-, as in ali-pés (from ala); and i-is so common a termination of compounded 
stems, that it is often added to stems which do not properly have it: as, 
foederi-fragus (for tfoeder-fragus: foedus, tfragus), ¢reaty-breaking. 


i393 FORMATION OF WORDS. [$§ 169, 170. 


@. Compounds of the above kinds, in which the last word is a 
noun, acquire the signification of adjectives, meaning Possessed of the 
quality denoted (Possessive Compounds) : as, — 

ali-pés (ala, pés), wing-footed. 

magn-animus (magnus, animus), great-souled. 

con-cors (con-, cor), harmonious. 

an-ceps (amb-, caput), double (having a head at both ends). 


Nore. — Many compounds of the above classes appear only in the form 
of some further derivative, the proper compound being not found in Latin. 


169. In many apparent compounds, complete words — 
not stems — have grown together in speech. 


These are not strictly compounds in the etymological sense, They 
are called Syxtactic Compounds. Examples are — 

a. Compounds of faci6, facto, with an actual or formerly existing 
noun-stem confounded with a verbal stem in e-. These are CAUSA- 
TIVE in force: as, cOnsué-facid, hadbztuate (cf. cOnsué-scd, become 
accustomed); cale-facid, cale-factd, fo heat (cf. calé-scd, erow 
warm). 

6. An adverb or noun combined with a verb: as, bene-dicd (bene 
dics), fo bless ; sat-agd (satis ago), to be busy enough. 

c. Many apparent compounds: as, fidé-iubed (fidei iubed), fo 
give surety; man-suétus (manui suétus), fame; Tuppiter (+Iis- 
- pater); Marci-por (Marci puer), s/ave of Marcus. 

@. A few phrases forced into the inflections of nouns: as, — 

pro-consul, Zroconsul (for pro consule, instead of a consul). 

trium-vir, ¢ryéumvir (singular from trium virdrum). 

septen-trio, ‘he Bear, a constellation (supposed singular of septem 
tridnés, The Seven Oxen). 


170. Many syntactic compounds are formed by prefix- 
ing a Particle to some other part of speech : — 


a. Prepositions are prefixed to Verbs or Adjectives and in these 
compounds retain their original adverbial sense :} as, — 


1 The prepositions sometimes, however, especially ad, in, circum, trans, 
have their ordinary force as prepositions, and govern the case of a noun : 
as, transire fliimen, fo cross a river (see § 239. 6. Rem.). 


§ 170.] COMPOUND WORDS. 123 


a, ab, AWAY: au-ferre (ab-ferd), fo take away. 

ad, TO, TOWARDS: af-ferre (ad-ferd), fo dring. 

ante, BEFORE: ante-ferre, fo refer; ante-cellere, fo excel. 

circum, AROUND: circum-minire, Zo fortify completely. 

com-, con- (cum), TOGETHER Or FORCIBLY: cOn-ferre, fo bring 

together ; col-locare, Zo set firm. 

dé, DOWN, UTTERLY: dé-spicere, despise ; déstruere, destroy. 

6, ex, OUT: ef-ferre (ec-ferd), fo carry forth, uplift. 

in (with verbs), IN, ON, AGAINST : in-ferre, 40 dear against. 

inter, BETWEEN, TO PIECES: inter-rumpere, /o interrupt. 

ob, TOWARDS, TO MEET : Of-ferre, ¢o offer; ob-venire, fo meet. 

sub, UNDER: sub-struere, to buzld beneath. 

super, UPON, OVER AND ABOVE: super-fluere, fo overflow ; 

superstes, a survivor. 

Nore. — In these compounds short a of the root is weakened to i before 
one consonant, to e before two: as, facid, cOnficid, cOnfectus; iacid, éicid, 
éiectus. But long ais retained: as, peractus. 

6. Verbs are also compounded with the following inseparable 
particles, which do not appear as prepositions in Latin : — 

amb- (am-, an-), AROUND: amb-ire, Zo go about (cf. api, about). 

dis-, di-, ASUNDER, APART: dis-cédere, Zo depart (cf. duo, two). 

por-, FORWARD: por-tendere, fo hold forth, predict (cf. porr, 
forth). 

red-, re-, BACK, AGAIN: red-ire, fo return; re-cludere, to open 

(from claudo, shut) ; re-ficere, to repair (make again). 

séd-, sé-, APART: sé-cern6, Zo separate (cf. sed, but). 

c. An Adjective is sometimes modified by an adverbial prefix. 

Of these, per (less commonly prae), very; sub, somewhat, in-, 
not, are regular, and may be prefixed to almost any adjective : as, — 

per-magnus, very large. _ prae-longus, very long. 

sub-rusticus, rather clownish. in-finitus, doundless. 

Note. — Per and sub, in these senses, are also prefixed to verbs: as, 
perterres, ¢errify ; sub-rided, smzve. In igndscé, in- appears to be the nega- 
* tive prefix. 

.@. Many Verbals are found compounded with a preposition, like 
the verbs to which they correspond. Thus, — 

per-fuga, deserter; cf. per-fugid. 

tradux, vine-branch ; cf. trans-dicd. 


124 . INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 


PART SECOND.—USE OF WORDS 
(SYNTAX). 





INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 


THE study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history of 
language, and deals with language as fully developed. The terms of Syntax 
correspond accordingly to the logical habits of thought that have grown up 
at such a period, and have therefore a logical as well as a simply grammati- 
cal meaning. But Syntax as thus developed is not essential to language. 
A form of words—like 6 puerum pulcrum! of / beautiful boy —may express 
a thought, and in some languages might even be a sentence, while it does 
not logically declare anything, and does not, strictly speaking, make what 
we call a sentence at all. 

In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost 
exclusively accustomed, the unit of expression is the SENTENCE!; that is, 
the completed statement, with its distinct Subject and Predicate. Origi- 
nally every sentence is simple. But two simple sentences may be used 
together, without the subordination of either, to express a more complex 
form of thought than can be denoted by one alone. This is parataxis 
(arrangement side by side). In time, two sentences, thus habitually used 
in connection, come to be regularly associated with each other, in certain 
relations, as parts of one logical idea, and the one is felt to depend upon 
the other. This is syztaxis (arrangement together). In this way, through 
various courses of development, which correspond to the growth of our 
habitual forms of thought, there are produced various forms of complex 
sentences. Thus, timed né id accidat was originally two simple sentences: 7 
fear. Let that not happen! and these, becoming attached, formed the com- 
plex sentence : / fear (lest) that may happen. The results of these processes 
constitute the subject-matter of Syntax as shown in the annexed Outline. 


I, A SENTENCE may be either Simple or Compound: viz., — 


Containing a single statement (Subject and 
Predicate) (§ 180}. 

a. Containing two or more Co-ordinate 
Clauses (§ 180. a). 

6. Modified by Subordinate Clauses (com- 
plex) (§ 180. 6). 


1 The meaning of Sentence is “ Thought” (sententia, from sentire). The gram- 
matical form of the sentence is the form in which the thought is expressed. 


I. SIMPLE: j 


2. COMPOUND: 


§171.] DEFINITIONS. 125 


II. The Essential Parts of the Sentence are — 


a. Noun or its equivalent (§ 174. 1). 

6. Pronoun contained in verb-ending (§ 
I7AS 2): 

( a. Neuter (intransitive) Verb (§ 175. a). 

2. The sing of | Copula with Predicate Noun or Adjec- 


1. The SUBJECT: con- ( 
sisting of 


consisting of tive (§ 172. note). 
c. Verb with Object (§$§ 175. 4, 177). 


III. The Subject and Predicate may be MODIFIED as follows :— 


a. Noun in Apposition (§ 184). 

6, Adjective or Participle (§ 186). 

c. Noun in Oblique Case (§ 178. a, 0). 
d. Preposition with its case (§ 260). 

é. Relative Clause (§ 180. c). 


1. The Noun (Sudject 
or Object) by 


(a. Adverb or Adverbial Phrase (§§ 179, 
2. The VERB (fredz- 207). 
cate) by 6. Predicate Adjective (§ 191). 
c. Subordinate Clause (§ 180. 4). 


a. Rules of AGREEMENT (the Four Concords) (§ 182). 


nue aaeees } 6. Rules of GOVERNMENT (Construction of Cases) (§§ 213 ff.). 


THE SENTENCE. 
1. Definitions. 


171. A SENTENCE is a form of words which contains a 
Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command. 


a. Asentence in the form of a Statement is called a DECLARATIVE 
SENTENCE : as, ecus currit, the horse runs. . 

6. A sentence in the form of a Question is called an INTERROGA- 
TIVE SENTENCE : as, ecusne currit? does the horse run ? 

c. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an ExcLAM- 
ATORY SENTENCE: as, quam celeriter currit ecus! how fast the 
horse runs ! : 

d. A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, or an 
Entreaty is called an IMPERATIVE SENTENCE: as, currat ecus, /e7 
the horse run, i, curre per Alpés, go run across the Alps. 


126 THE SENTENCE. [$§ 172-174. 


172. Every sentence consists of a agi and a 
Predicate. 

The Susjectr of a sentence is the person or thing. 
spoken of. / 

The PRebicase 3 is that which is said of the Subject. 


Thus, in ecus currit, the horse runs, ecus is the subject, and 
currit the predicate. 
fi 


NoTE. — Every complete sentence must contain a subject (§ 174) anda 
verb. The verb itself is usually the predicate, but when any form of sum is 
used simply to connect a noun or adjective as an attribute with the sub- 
ject, such word is called the predicate noun or adjective, and sum is known as 
the copula (or connective) (§ 176. a). Thus, in Caesar consul erat, Cesar 
. was consul, Caesar is the subject, cénsul the predicate noun, and erat the 
copula. 

But sum in the sense of ex7s¢ makes a complete predicate alone. It is 
then called the substantive verb : as, sunt. viri fortés, there are (exist) brave 
men. 


2. Subject and Predicate. 
178. 1. (RULE 13.) The Subject of a Finite verb is 
in the NOMINATIVE CASE: as, — 


ecus currit, the horse runs. régina sedet, the queen sits. 


.2, (RULE 36.) The Subject of an Infinitive is in the 


AccusaTivE(see § 240.7). 


Nore. — A finite verb is a verb in the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Impera- 
tive. These are called finite moods to distinguish them from the Infinitive. 


174. 1. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun or 
some word or phrase used as a Noun: as, — 


himanum est errare, fo err is human. 
quaeritur num mors malum sit, the guestion is whether death is an evil. 
vénit, incertum est unde, e came, where from is uncertain. 


2. But in Latin the subject may be implied in the ter- 
mination of the verb (see § 206. a, 6) : as,— 


sedé-mus, we sit. curri-tis, you run. inqui-t, says he. 


§§ 175,176] PREDICATE NOUN. 127 


175. Verbs are either Intransitive or Transitive. 


a. An Intransitive (or Neuter) verb contains in itself an entire 
statement: as, — ; 

cado, 7 fal/ (am falling). 

sOl liicet, the sun is shining. 

sunt virl fortés, there are brave men. 

6. A Transitive (or Active) verb has or requires a Direct Object 
to complete its sense (see § 177): as, — 

fratrem cecidit, he slew his brother. 

Nore 1.— Among transitive verbs FACTITATIVE VERBS are sometimes 
distinguished as a separate class. These state an act which produces the 
thing expressed by the word which completes their sense. Thus, ménsam 
fécit, he made a table (which was not in existence before), is distinguished 
from ménsam percussit, e struck a table (which already existed). 

NoTE 2.—A transitive verb may often be used adsolutely without any 
object expressed: as, arat, he is ploughing, where the verb does not cease 
_ to be transitive because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding, — 
quid, what? agrum suum, 47s Jand. 


3- Predicate Noun. 


176. An intransitive verb is often followed by a noun 
or adjective to describe or define the subject. This is 
called a Predicate Noun or Adjective : as, — 


mortuus cecidit, he fe// dead. 

Quintus sedet itidex, Quintus sits as judge. 

Caesar victor incédit, Cesar advances victorious (a victor). 

a. The copula sum, especially, is used with a.predicate noun or ad- 
jective (see § 172. note). . So, also, verbs signifying ¢o become, to be 
made, to be named, to appear, whence these are called CopuLATIVE 
(z.e. coupling) verbs. ~ 





Nore. — A noun in agreement with some part of the predicate is some- 
times called a Predicate Noun (see § 185. c). 

6. A Predicate noun or adjective after the copula sum or a copu- 
lative verb is in the same case as the subject (see § 185. a). 

Roma est patria nostra, Rome is our country. ; 

stellae licidae erant, the stars were bright (cf. stellae liicébant). 

consul creatus est, Ze was elected consul. 

mors finis esse vidétur, death seems to be the end. 

dicit ndn omnés bonds esse beats, he says that not all good men are happy. 


128 _ THE SENTENCE. ~ [§ 177. 


4. Object. 


177. The person or thing immediately affected by the 
action of a verb is called the Direct Osjecr. 

A person or thing indirectly affected is called the In- 
DIRECT OBJECT. 

Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object ; but an 
Indirect Object may be used with both transitive and in- 
transitive verbs (§§ 225, 226). Thus, — 


pater vocat filium (direct object), the father calls his son. 
mihi (ind. obj.) agrum (dir. obj.) ostendit, Ze showed me a field. 
mihi (ind. obj.) placet, z¢ 7s pleasing to me. 


NotTeE.— The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is not 
fixed, but most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs 
usually intransitive may take a direct object and so become transitive (§ 


237- 0). 


a. When a transitive verb is changed from the Active to the 
Passive voice, the Direct Object becomes the Subject and is put in 
the nominative case : as, — 


Active ; pater filium vocat, the father calls [his] son. 

Passive: filius 4 patre vocatur, the son is called by his father. 

Active: linam et stellas vidémus, we see the moon and the stars. 
Passive: lina et stellae videntur, the moon and stars are seen (appear). 


6. With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used 
where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the Objec- 
tive. Thus, — 


hominem vided, 7 see the man (ACCUSATIVE). 

homini servi, / serve the man (DATIVE, see § 227). 

hominis misereor, / pity the man (GENITIVE, see § 221. a). 

homine amico itor, / ¢reat the man as a friend (ABLATIVE, see § 249). 


c. Many verbs transitive in Latin are translated in English by an 
intransitive verb with a preposition : as, — 


petit aprum, #e aims at the boar. 
laudem affectat, he strives after praise. 
cirat valétiidinem, he takes care of his health. 


§§ 178-180.] MODIFICATION. 129 


Nore. — One or more words, essential to the grammatical completeness 
of a sentence, but clear enough to the mind of a hearer, are often omitted. 
This omission is called ELLIPsis, and the sentence is called an ELLIPTICAL 
SENTENCE : as, adest, he is here ; quis? (sc. adest), who? miles (sc. adest), 
the soldier. 


5. Modification. 


178. A Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a 
single word, or by a group of words (a Phrase or a Clause, 


see §§ 179, 180). 
The modifying word or group of words may itself be 
modified in the same way. 


a. A single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an 
appositive (§ 184), or the oblique case of anoun. Thus, in the sen- 
tence vir fortis patienter fert, 2 brave man bears patiently, the 
adjective fortis, drave, modifies the subject vir, za, and the adverb 
patienter, Aatiently, modifies the predicate fert, dears. 

é. The modifying word is in some cases said to LIMIT the word to 
which it belongs. Thus, in the sentence puerl patrem vided, / see 
the boy’s father, the genitive pueri limits patrem (by excluding any 
other father). 


179. A PHRASE is a group of words, without subject or 
predicate of its own, which may be used as an Adjective 
or an Adverb. 


Thus, in the sentence vir fuit summa nobilitate, e was a man of 
the highest nobility, the words summa nobilitate, of the highest 
nobility, are used for the adjective nobilis, z0d/e (or ndbilissimus, 
very noble), and are called an ADJECTIVE PHRASE. In the sentence 
magna celeritate vénit, Ae came with great speed, the words magna 
celeritate, with great speed, are used for the adverb celeriter, 
quickly (or celerrimé, very guickly), and are called an ADVERBIAL 
PHRASE. 


180. Sentences are either Simple or Compound. 


A SrmpLe SENTENCE is a sentence containing a single 
statement, 


130 THE SENTENCE. [§ 180. 


A Compounp SENTENCE is a sentence containing more 
than one statement, and each single statement in it is 
called a CLAUSE. 


a. If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are said 
to be CoO-ORDINATE. They are usually connected by a Co-ordinate 
Conjunction (§ 154. @); but this is sometimes omitted (§ 208. 4). 
Thus, — 


divide et impera, divide and conquer. But, — 
véni, vidi, vici, 7 came, / saw, [ conquered. 


6. If one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying 
clause is said to be SUBORDINATE, and the clause modified is called 
the MAIN CLAUSE. 

This subordination is indicated by some connecting word, either a 
Subordinate Conjunction or a Relative (§ 154. 4): as, — 


dderint dum metuant, Jet them hate so long as they fear. 
servum misit quem sécum habébat, he sent the slave whom he had 
with him. 


A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses is some- 
times called CoMPLEX. . 


Note. — A subordinate clause may itself be modified by another sub- 
ordinate clause. 


c. A clause introduced by a Relative pronoun or adverb is called 
a RELATIVE CLAUSE. 
A clause introduced by an adverb of time is called a TEMPORAL 
CLAUSE. Thus, — 
dum tacent clamant, while they are silent they cry aloud. 
hominés aegri morbé gravi cum iactantur aestii febrique, si aquam geli- 
dam biberint prim6 relevari videntur, men suffering with a severe 
sickness, when they are tossing with the heat of fever, if they drink 
cold water, seem at first to be relieved. 


@. A clause containing a Condition, introduced by si, 74 or some 
equivalent, is called a CONDITIONAL CLAUSE. A sentence containing 
a conditional clause is called a CONDITIONAL SENTENCE. 


Thus, si aquam gelidam biberint, primé relevari videntur is a Conditional 
Sentence, and si. . . biberint is a Conditional Clause. 


§§ 181-183.] AGREEMENT. 131 


e. A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a FINAL 
or PURPOSE CLAUSE. 

edo ut vivam, / eat to dive (that I may live). 

misit légatds qui dicerent, he sent ambassadors to say (who should say). 

A clause expressing the Result of an action is called a CONSECU- , 
TIVE or RESULT CLAUSE.! 

tam longé aberam ut non vidérem, / was too far away to see (so far away 

that I didn’t see). 


AGREEMENT. 


181. A word is said to agree with another when it is 
required by usage to be in the same Gender, Number, 
Case, or Person. 


182. The following are the general forms of Agree- 
ment, sometimes called the Four Concords :— 


1. The agreement of the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate (§§ 
184, 185). 

2. The agreement of the ADJECTIVE with its Noun (§ 186). 

3. The agreement of the RELATIVE with its Antecedents (§ 198). 

4. The agreement of the VERB with its Subject (§ 204). 

a. SYNESIS, or comstrictid ad sénsum (construction according to 
sense) is a construction in which a word takes the gender or number, 
not of the word with which it should regularly agree, but of some 
other word izmplied in that word. 


I, NOUNS. 


188. (RULE I.) A noun used to describe another, and 
denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in Case: 
as, — 

Servius réx, Servius the king. 

ad urbem Athénas, Zo the city [of] Athens. 

Cicero consul creatur, Cicero is chosen consul. 


The descriptive noun may be either an Appositive (§ 184) or a 
Predicate noun (§ 185). 


1 Observe that the classes defined in a-e are not mutually exclusive, but 
that a single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus, a relative 
clause is usually subordinate, and may be at the same time conditional ; and 
subordinate clauses may be co-ordinate with each other. 


132 THE SENTENCE. [§ 184. 


x. Apposition. 


184. The descriptive noun, when in the same part of 
the sentence with the noun described, is called an Appos- 
ITIVE, and is said to be in APPOSITION : as, — 

externus timor, maximum concordiae vinculum, iungébat animés (Liv. 

ii. 39), fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of harmony, united their 
hearts. (Here the descriptive noun belongs to the sudject.] 
quattuor hic primum 6men equds vidi (Ain. iii. 537), 7 saw here four 
horses, the first omen. (Here both nouns are in the predicate.] 

litteras Graecas senex didici (Cat. M. 26), 7 learned Greek when an old 
man. [Here senex is in apposition with the omitted subject of 
didici, and expresses the “ime, condition, etc., of the act.] 

a. Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a word in- 
cluding the parts, or vice versa: as, — 


Gnaeus et Publius Scipidnés, Cuezus and Publius, the Scipios. 


6. An appositive generally agrees in GENDER and NUMBER when 
it can: as, — 

secuntur natiram, optimam ducem (Lzl. 19), they follow nature, the 

best guide. 

omnium doctrinarum inventricés Athénas (De Or. i. 13), Athens, dis- 

coverer of all learning. 

c. A common noun in apposition with a Locative (§ 258. ¢c) is put 
in the Ablative, with or without the preposition in: as, — 

Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 4), at Antioch, once a famous 

city. 

Albae cdnstitérunt in urbe miinita (Phil. iv. 6), they halted at Alba, a forti- 

fied town. 

d. A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may 
take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, 
and case with an implied noun or pronoun (§ 197. é): as, — 

in nostrd omnium flétii (Mil. 92), amid the tears of us all. 

ex Anniana Milonis domo (Att. iv. 3) [= ex Anni Milonis dom6], out 

of Annius Milo’s house. 


2. Predicate Agreement. 
The Predicate noun may agree (1) with the subject, being con- 
nected with it by the copula or a copulative verb (§ nie a), or (2) 
with the direct object of a verb. 


§§ 185, 186.] ADJECTIVES. 133 


185. A descriptive noun used to form a predicate is 
called a PREDICATE NOMINATIVE (or other case, according 
to the construction). 

eee %, 








a. The case of the predicate after the copula and copulative verbs 
is the same as that of the subject (§ 176. 4): as, — 

pacis semper auctor fui (Lig. 28), £ have always been an adviser of 
peace. 

quae pertinacia quibusdam, eadem aliis cénstantia vidéri potest (Marc. 
31), what may seem obstinacy to some, may seem to others constis- 
tency. 

éius mortis sedétis ultdrés (Mil. 79), you sit as avengers of his death. 

ego patronus exstiti (Rosc. Am. 5), / have come forward as an advocate. 


6. A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is in 
the plural ; as, — 


consulés creantur Caesar et Servilius (B.C. iii. 1), Cesar and Servilius 
are elected consuls. 


c. For Predicate Accusative, see under that case, § 239. a. 


Il. ADJECTIVES. 
1. Rules of Agreement. 


186. (RULE 2.) Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and 
Participles agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, 
and Case. 

vir fortis, a brave man. 

illa mulier, that woman. 

urbium magnarum, of great cities. 

cum ducentis militibus, wth 200 soldiers. 

imperator victus est, the general was beaten. 


Nore. — All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjec- 
tive pronouns and to participles. 


Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate. 


a. An Attributive adjective simply qualifies its noun without the 
intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied. 


bonus imperator, a good commander. 
stellae liicidae, dright stars. 


134 THE SENTENCE. [§ 187. 


6. All other adjectives are called Predicate adjectives. 

1. A predicate adjective, like a predicate noun, may be connected 
with the subject by esse or a copulative verb expressed or implied 
(see § 176. a): as, — 

stellae licidae erant, the stars were bright. 


z. After verbs of xaming, calling, making, etc., an adjective may 
be used as a predicate accusative like a noun (see § 239. @). 

3. A predicate adjective may be used in apposition like a noun 
(see c, below). 


c. Predicate adjectives in apposition follow the rules of agreement 
of other adjectives (see § 186, above): as, — 

Scipi6nem vivum vidi, 7 saw Scipio in his lifetime (lit. living). 

@. With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but 
sometimes agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive). 
Thus, — 


Nisus et Euryalus primi (Ain. v. 294), Misus and Euryalus first. 
Caesaris omni et gratia et opibus fruor (Fam. i. 9, 21), / exjoy all Cesar’s 
favor and resources. 


187. One adjective may belong in sense to two or 
more nouns of different genders. 
a. In such cases — 
1. An attributive adjective agrees with the nearest noun: as, — 
multae operae ac labdris, of much trouble and toil. 
vita morésque mei, my /ife and character. 
si rés, si vir, si tempus dllum, dignum fuit (Mil. 19), ¢f any thing, if any 
man, if any time was fit. 
2. A predicate adjective may agree with the nearest, if the nouns 
form one connected idea : as, — 
factus est strepitus et admurmurati6d (Verr.i. 45), @ moise of assent was 
made (noise and murmur). 
Note. — This is only when the Copula agrees with the nearest subject 
(§ 205. 2). 
6. But generally a predicate adjective will be masculine, if nouns 
of different genders mean “ving beings ; neuter, if things without 
life: as,— 





# 


§ 188.] ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY. 135 


uxor deinde Ac liberi amplexi (Liv. ii. 40), then his wife and children em- 
braced him. 

labor (M.) voluptasque (F.), societate quadam inter sé natiirali sunt itincta 
(N.) (id. v. 4), dabor and delight are bound together by a certain natural 
alliance. 


Note. — If nouns of different genders include both male beings and — 
things without life, a predicate adjettive i is sometimes masculine, sometimes 


as, — 
réx régiaque classis tina profecti (Liv. xxi. 50), the king and the royal fleet 
set out together. 
natira inimica sunt libera civitas et réx (id. xliv. 24), dy nature a free 
state and a king are hostile. 
légatds sortésque Graculi exspectandas (id. v.15), that the ambassadors 
and the replies of the oracle should be waited for. 


c. Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a 
predicate adjective in the neuter plural (cf. § 189. c) : as, — 


stultitia et timiditas et iniistitia...sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. 39), folly, 
rashness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned. 


d. A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender 
and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals 
implied (Synests, § 182. a): as, — 


pars certare parati (En. v. 108), a part ready to contend. 
duo milia relicti (Liv. xxxvii. 39), ‘wo thousand were left. 


2. Adjectives used Substantively. 


188. Adjectives are often used as Nouns (substantively), 
the masculine usually to denote men or people in general 


of that kind, the feminine women, and the r things: 
ee 
omnés, a// men (everybody). omnia, a// things (everything). 
majdrés, ancestors. minorés, descendants. 
Romani, Romans. barbari, daxbarians. 


REMARK. — The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very 
common in this use. The singular is rare except in a few words which 
have become practically nouns. See below and § 180. a. 


136 THE SENTENCE. [§ 189. 


a. Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often 
modified by other adjectives. Thus, — 

tuus vicinus proximus, your next-door neighbor. 

- propinqui céteri, 27s other relatives. 

6. When any ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of 
an adjective, a noun must be added. Thus, — 

boni, the good ; omnia, everything (all things); but — 

potentia omnium rérum, power over everything. [omnium alone would 

mean a// men. ] 

c. Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular or 
the plural, with the added meaning of some noun which is under- 
stood from constant association : as, — 

Africus [ventus], the south-west wind. 

vitulina [card], vea/ (calf’s flesh). 

fera [bestia], a wild beast. 

patria [terra], the fatherland. 

d. A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may then be 
modified by an adverb: as, — 

victor exercitus, the victorious army. 

servum pecus, @ servile troop. ; 

admodum puer, guzte a doy (young). 

magis vir, more of a man (more manly). 

é. A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are — 

I. obviam: as, — 

fit obviam, he goes to meet (becomes in the way of). 

2. contra, contradicting some previous adjective, and so in a man- 
ner repeating it: as, — 

alia probabilia, contra alia dicimus (Off. ii. 7), we call some things 

probable, others the opposite (not probable). 

3. palam: as, — 


palam rés est, the thing is all out. 


189. Neuter adjectives are used substantively in the 
following special senses :— 

a. The neuter singudar may denote either a single object or an 
abstract quality: as,— 


rapt6 vivere, 7o live by plunder. 
in aridd, on dry ground. 


§§ 190, 191.] POSSESSIVES. 


137 
6. The neuter P/ural is used to signify objects in general having 
the quality denoted, and hence*may stand for the abstract idea: as,— 


honesta, honorable deeds (in general). 
omnés fortia laudant, a// men praise bravery (brave things). 
c. A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate 


noun with a noun of different gender (cf. § 187. c): as,— 


triste lupus stabulis, the wolf is a grievous thing for the sheepfold. 
varium et miitabile semper fémina, woman is ever a changing and fickle 
thing. 


d. A neuter adjective is used in agreement with an Infinitive or a 
Substantive Clause: as, — 


istic ipsum nOn esse (Tusc. i. 12), that very “not to be.” 
hiimanum est errare, to err ts human. 


aliud est errare Caesarem ndlle, aliud ndlle miseréri (Lig. 16), ¢ zs one 


thing to be unwilling that Caesar should err, another to be unwilling 
that he should pity. 


3. Possessives. 


190. Possessive and other derivative adjectives are 
often used in Latin where the English has the possessive 


case, or a noun with a preposition (cf. §§ 184. d, 197. @): 
as, — 


pugna Cannénsis, the fight at Canne. 


C. Blossius Ciimanus, Caius Blossius of Cume. 
aliéna domus, another man’s house. 


a. Possessive and other derivative adjectives are often used sub- 
stantively to denote some special class or relation (see § 197. @): as,— 


nostri, our countrymen or men of our party. 
Sullani, the veterans of Sulla’s army. 


4. Adjectives with Adverbial Force. 


191. An adjective agreeing with the subject or object 
is often used to qualify the action of the verb, having the 
force of an adverb: as, — 

primus vénit, he came first (was the first to come). 


laeti audiére, they were glad to hear. 


erat Romae frequéns (Rosc. Am. 16), he was often at Rome. 


138 THE SENTENCE. [§§ 192-194. 


5. Comparatives and Superlatives. 


192. When two qualities of an object are compared, 
both adjectives are in the comparative : as, — 
longior quam latior aciés erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was longer than it 
was broad (or, rather long than broad). 
a. Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive : as, — 


clari magis quam honesti (Jug. 8), more renowned than honorable. 


193. (RULE 5.) Superlatives (and more rarely com- 
paratives) denoting order and succession —also medius, 
céterus, relicus—usually designate not what object, but 
what part of it, is meant : as, — ‘ 


summus mons, the top of the hill. 
reliqui captivi, the rest of the prisoners. 
in colle medio (B. G. i. 24), half way up the hill (on the middle of the 
hill). 
Nore. — A similar use is found in such expressions as séra (multa) nocte, 
late at night. But medium viae, the middle of the way ; multum diéi, much 
of the day, also occur. 


Ill. PRONOUNS. 


1. Personal Pronouns. 


194. The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same 
constructions as nouns. 


a. The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for 
distinction or emphasis (compare § 346. @): as, — 

té vocd, 7 call you ; but 

quis mé vocat? ego té vocd, who zs calling me ? J (eraphatic) am calling 

you. 

6. (RULE 6.) The personal pronouns have two forms for the 
genitive plural, that in -tim being used fartitively (§ 216), and that 
in -I oftenest objectively (cf. § 213. 2) : as, — 

maior vestriim, the e/der of you. 

habétis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 19), you have a 

leader who thinks (is mindful) ef you and forgets (is forgetful of ) 
himself. 

pars nostrim, @ fart (7.2. some) of us. 


~ §195-] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 139 


NoTe.— The genitives nostrim, vestriim are occasionally used objec- 
tively (§ 217): as, cupidus vestrim (Verr. iii. 224), fond of you; custis 
vestrim (Cat. iii. 29), the guardian of you (your guardian). 


2. Demonstrative Pronouns. 


195. Demonstrative pronouns are used either adjec- 
tively or substantively. 

As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement 
of adjectives (§§ 186, 187). 

As substantives, they are equivalent to personal pro- 
nouns. This use is regular in the oblique cases, espe- 
cially of iss Thus, — 

1. Personal : — 


Caesar et exercitus éius, Cesar and his army (not suus). [But, Caesar 
exercitum suum dimisit, Cesar disbanded his [own] army. }. 
his Caesar ita respondit, to them Caesar thus replied. 


2. Adjective :— 
hoc proelid facté, after this battle was fought (this battle having been, etc.). 


eddem proelid, 7 the same battle. 
[For special significations of the demonstratives, see § 102.] 


a. The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of reference, 
to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned : as, — 


niillam virtiis aliam mercédem désiderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch. 28), 
virtue wants no other reward except that [just spoken of] of prazse. 


4. But the demonstrative as a pronoun, of reference is commonly 
omitted, or some other construction is preferred : as, — 


memoriae artem quam oblividnis malo, 7 prefer (like more) ¢he art of 
memory to (than) [that] of forgetfulness. 


c. When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person or 
thing already named, is or idem (often with the concessive quidem) 
is used to indicate that person or thing : as, -— 


vincula, et ea sempiterna (Cat. iv. 7), 2mprisonment, and that perpetual. 

legidnem neque eam plénissimam déspiciébant (B. G. iii. 2), they despised 
the single legion, and that not a very full one. 

tuus dolor hiimanus is quidem sed, etc., your grief is human, to be sure, 
but, etc. 


140 THE SENTENCE. [§ 195. 


d. An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or predi- 
cate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it 
refers (cf. § 199): as, — 

hic labor hdc opus est, this is the toil, this the task (namely, revocare 

gradum, which would regularly take a neuter pronoun]. 


é. Idem, ¢he same, is often equivalent to an adverb or adverbial 
phrase (a/so, too, yet, at the same time): as, — 


dratio splendida et grandis et eadem in primis facéta (Brut. 273), a2 ora- 
tion, brilliant, able, and very witty, too. 


Ff. The intensive ipse, se7f, is used with any of the other pronouns 
or a noun for the sake of emphasis : as, — 
turpe mihi ipsi vidébatur (Cic.), even to me (to me myself) it seemed dis- 
graceful. 
id ipsum, ¢hat very thing. 
REMARK. — The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English by just, 
very, mere, etc. (see above examples). 


g. Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as an emphatic pronoun 
of the third person : as, — 
mihi satis, ipsis non satis (Cic.), exough for me, not for themselves. 
beatds illds qui cum adesse ipsis n6n licébat aderant tamen (id.), Lappy 
they who, when it was not allowed them to attend in person, still were 
there. 
di capiti ipsius generique reservent (Ain. vii. 484), may the gods hold in © 
reserve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in-law’s head. 


A. Tpse is often used alone, substantively, to emphasize an omitted 
subject of the first or second person : as, — 

vobiscum ipsi recordamini (Cic.), remember in your own minds (your- 

selves with yourselves). 

z. Ipse, used substantively, sometimes refers to a principal per- 
sonage, to distinguish him from subordinate persons: as, — 

ipse dixit (cf. avrds pa), HE (the Master) said it. 

2. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of areflexive. (Cf. § 196. 2.) 

2. Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real emphasis 
is in English on a reflexive in the predicate: as, — 


mé ipse consOlor, 7 console myself. [Not mé ipsum.) 


§ 196.] REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. I41I 


3. Reflexive Pronouns. 


196. (RULE 7.) The Reflexive pronoun (sé),! and usu- 
ally its corresponding possessive (suus), are used in some 
part of the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence 
or clause: as, — 


virtiis sé novit, virtue knows itself. 
promisit sé ventiirum [esse], he promised that he would come. 
Briitus amicum suum occidit, Brutus killed his friend. 


a. In a subordinate clause of a compound sentence 
there is a double use of reflexives. 


1. The Reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its 
own clause (Direct Reflexive): as, — 


ex quo itidicari potest quantum habeat in sé boni cdnstantia (B. G.i. 40), 
Srom which it can be determined how much good firmness possesses 
(has in itself). 

[Caesar] ndluit eum locum vacare, né Germani é suis finibus transirent 
(B. G. i. 28), Cesar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the 
Germans would cross over from their territories. 


2. If the subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the 
subject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to 
that subject (/udirect Reflexive): as, — 


petiérunt ut sibi licéret (B. G. i. 30), they begged that it might be allowed 
them (the petitioners). 

Iccius niintium ad eum mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submittatur, etc. (B.G. 
ii. 6), sends him a message that unless relief be furnished him (Iccius), 
etc. 

si obsidés ab eis (the Helvetians) sibi (Czsar, who is the speaker) 
dentur, sé (Czsar) cum eis pacem esse factiirum (B. G. i. 14), 
[Ceesar said] that if hostages were given him by them, he would make - 
peace with them. 


Norte. — Sometimes is or ipse is used as an Indirect Reflexive either 
from careless writing or to avoid ambiguity (cf. 7): as, — 
qui sé ex his minus timidés existimari vellent, nbn sé hostem veréri, sed 


angustias itineris et magnitiidinem silvarum quae intercéderent inter 


1 This seems to have been originally the personal pronoun of the third 
person, but it came by use to be purely reflexive. 


142 THE SENTENCE. [§ 196. 


ipsds (the persons referred to by sé above) atque Ariovistum .. . 
timére dicébant (B. G. i. 39), those of them who wished to be thought 
less timid said they did not fear the enemy, but were afraid of the nar- 
rows and the vast extent of the forests which were between themselves 
and Ariovistus. 


audistis ntiper dicere légatos Tyndaritands Mercurium qui sacris anniver- 
sariis apud eds colerétur Verris imperid esse sublatum (Verr. iv. 84), 
you have just heard the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue 
of Mercury which was worshipped with annual rites among them was 
taken away, etc. [Here Cicero wavers between apud eds colébatur, 
a remark of his own, and apud sé colerétur, the words of the /égd@7z. 
eds does not strictly refer to the ambassadors, but to the people— 
the Tyndaritani. | 

3. If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought 


of the main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is 
occasionally found. Thus, — 


sunt ita multi ut eds carcer capere non possit (Cat. ii. 22), they are so 
many that the prison cannot hold them. [Here sé could not be used.] 

ibi in proximis villis ita bipartito fuérunt, ut Tiberis inter eds et pons 
interesset (Cat. iii. 5), there they stationed themselves in the nearest 
Jarmhouses, in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the 
bridge were between them (the divisions). [Here inter sé might be 
used, but it would refer to a purpose of the soldiers. | 


4. The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the 
subject of a suppressed main clause: as, — 


Paetus, omnés librds qués frater suus reliquisset mihi donavit (Att. ii. 1, 
12), Petus gave me all the books which (as he said in the act of dona- 
tion) 42s brother had left (him). 


c. The reflexive may refer to any noun in its own clause which is 
so emphasized as to become in a manner the subject of discourse (cf. 
the note): as, — 


Sodcratem civés sui interfécérunt, Socrates was put to death by his own 
Sellow-citizens. 

qui poterat saliis sua cuiquam non probari (Mil. 81), how can any one 
fail to approve his own safety? [In this and the preceding example 
the emphasis is preserved in English by the change to the passive.] 

hunc si seciti erunt sui comités (Cat. ii. 10), “kis man, if his com- 
panions follow him. 


Note. — Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is 
absorbed : as, — 


§197-] REFLEXIVE AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 143 


studed sanare sibi ipsds (Cat. ii. 17), 7 am anxious to cure these men 

for their own benefit (z.e. ut sani sibi sint). 

suo sibi gladio (Plautus), with his own sword. [Here the clause is too 

indefinite to be supplied. ] 

d. The reflexive may follow a verbal noun or adjective: as, — 

sui laus, se/fprazse. 

impoténs sui (Q. C.), without self-control. 

é. The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive or 
verbal abstract used indefinitely: as, — 

bellum est sua vitia ndsse (Cic.), zt zs a fine thing. to know one’s own 

Jaults. 

cui proposita sit cdnservatid sui (Fin. v. 37), one whose aim is self- 

preservation. : 

J. Inter sé, among themselves, is regularly used to express recipro- 
cal action: as, — 

cohaerentia inter sé, things consistent with each other. 

g- Suus is used for ove’s own as emphatically opposed to ¢hat of 
others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word in 
it: as; = 

suis flammis déléte Fidénas (Liv. iv. 33), destroy Fiden@ with its own 

Jires (the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Cat. i. 32.] 

A. For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases 
of the personal pronouns (mei, tui, etc.) are used (see § 98. 2, 2): as, — 

morti mé obtuli (Mil. 94), 7 have exposed myself to death. ° 

hinc té réginae ad limina perfer (Ain. i. 389), do you go (bear yourself) 

hence to the queen’s threshold. 

z. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an zxdirect reflexive, to 
avoid ambiguity ; and in later writers is sometimes found instead of 
the direct reflexive (cf. a. 2 and 3): as, — 

cur dé sua virtiite aut dé ipsius diligentia déspérarent (B. G. i. 40), why 

(he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence ? 


4. Possessive Pronouns. 
197. The Possessive pronouns are derivative adjectives, 
which take the gender, number, and case of the noun Zo 
which they belong, not those of the possessor: as, — 


Caesar ux6rem suam repudiavit, Cesar put away his wife. 
haec sunt mea drnamenta, these are my jewels. [mea is neut. pl., though 
the speaker is a woman. ] 


144 THE SENTENCE. [§ 197. 


a. (RULE 8.) The possessive pronouns are used instead of the 
genitive of a personal pronoun. 
1. Always instead of the Possessive Genitive : as, — 


domus mea, my house. [Never domus mei. ] 
pater noster, our father. [Never pater nostri. ] 


Nore 1.—In different languages the ideas associated with possessives 
are not always the same, and hence idiomatic uses differ. Thus my eulogist 
may, in Latin, be laudator nostri (Att. i. 14, 6), or, like the English, laudator 
noster (see Att. i. 16, 5), with a different conception of the relation. 

NoTE 2.— The possessive cilius, -a, -um, is rare: as, cium pecus? 
whose flock? The genitive ciiius is generally used instead. 

2. Rarely instead of the Objective Genitive. Thus, regularly, — 

sui déspiciéns, disdainful of himself. 

non sdlum sui déprecatdrem, sed etiam acciisat6rem mei, not only a 

mediator for himself, but an accuser of me (Att. xi. 8). 
But occasionally, — 

ea quae faciébat, tua sé fidiicia facere dicébat (Verr. v. 176), what he was 

doing, he said he did relying on you (with your reliance). 

4. The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar 
to, or favorable or propitious towards the person or thing spoken 
of : as, — 

[petere] ut sua clémentia 4c mansuétiidine ititatur, hey asked (they said) 

that he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity. 

ignoranti quem portum petat nillus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71. 3), Zo 

him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair (his own). 

c. The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns) 
when they are plainly implied in the context: as, — 

amicum gratulatur, he greets his friend. [amicum suum would be dis- 

tinctive, 47s friend (and not another’s); suum amicum, emphatic, 47s 
own friend. | 

d. Possessives are often used substantively (§ 190. a): as, — 

nostri, our countrymen, or men of our party. 

suds continébat (B. G. i. 15), Ae held his men in check. 

flamma extréma me6rum (En. ii. 431), dast flames of my countrymen. 

é. (RULE 9.) A possessive representing a genitive may have a 
genitive in apposition (§ 184. d): as, — 

mea solius causa, for my sake only. 

nostra omnium patria, the country of us all. 


§§ 197a, 198] - RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 145 


5. Relative Pronouns. 

Note. — A Relative pronoun is properly an Adjective, in agreement 
with some word expressed or implied either in its own clause, or (often) in 
the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. The full construction would require 
the antecedent to be expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a cor- 
responding demonstrative to which the relative would refer: as, — 

iter in ea loca facere coepit, quibus in locis esse German6s audiébat 

(B. G. iv. 7), Ae began to march into those PLACES in which PLACES he 
heard the Germans were. 
Relatives serve two uses : — 

‘1. as Nouns (or adjectives) in their own clause: as, — 

ei qui Alesiae obsidébantur, those who were besieged at Alesia. 

2. as Connectives : as, — 

T. Balventi6, qui superidre anno primum pilum diixerat, 77tws Balventio, 

who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank. 
In this latter use they are often equivalent merely to a demonstrative : as, — 
quae cum ita sint (= cum ea ita sint), stxce these things are so. 


197a. A Relative pronoun indicates a relation between 
its own clause and some substantive. This substantive is 
called the Antecedent of the relative. 

Thus, in the sentence — 

eum nihil délectabat, quod fas esset, xothing pleased him which was right, 


the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate fas 
esset, indicating a relation between the two. 


198. (RuLE 3.) A Relative agrees with its A edent 
in GENDER and NumBeEr ; but its CasE depends on the 
construction of the clause in which it stands : as, — 

(ee TRE ‘ 


puer qui vénit abiit, the doy who came has gone away. 

liber quem legis meus est, the book you are reading is mine. 

via qua ambulat dicit ad urbem, the path he walks in leads to the city! 

This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are variable 
in form: as, qualis, quantus, quicumque. 

Norte. — The relative may be the subject or object in its own clause, or 
a modifier of either: as, — 

eds enim civés piigna illa sustulerat quibus ndn modo vivis sed etiam 

victoribus incolumis et floréns civitas esse posset (Phil. xiv. 23). 


146 THE SENTENCE. [$§ 199, 200. 


a. If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules 
for the agreement of predicate adjectives (§§ 186, 187): as, — 
filium et filiam, qués valdé diléxit, ind tempore amisit, he Jost a son and 
a daughter at the same time, whom he-dearly loved. 
Otium atque divitiae quae prima mortalés putant (Sall. Cat. 36), zd/eness 
and wealth which men count the first (objects of desire). 


199. A relative generally agrees in gender and number 
with an appositive or predicate noun in_its own clause, 
. ee F 
rather than with an antecedent of different gender or 
number (cf. § 195. @): as; 
mare etiam quem Neptiinumésse dicébas (N. D. iii. 52), the sea, too, 
which you said was Neptune. [Not quod.] 
Thébae ipsae, quod Boedtiae caput est (Liv. xlii. 44), even Thebes, which 
ts the chief city of Beotia. [Not quae.] 
Note. — This rule is occasionally violated : as, — 
flimen quod appellatur Tamesis (B. G. v. 11), a river which is called the 
Thames. 
a. A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by 
attraction): as, — 
si aliquid agas eOrum quorum consuésti (Fam. v. 14), 7 you should do 
something of what you are used todo. [For edrum quae. ] 
6. A relative may agree in gender and number with an zmplied 
antecedent : as, — 
quartum genus ... qui aere vetere aliéno vacillant (Cat. ii. 21), @ fourth 
class, that are staggering undcr old debts. 
Nore. — So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive 
pronoun : as, — 


nostra qui adsumus saliis, the safety of us who are present. [Here qui 
agrees with the nostriim implied in nostra. ] 


200. The antecedent noun sometimes appears in both 
clauses ; but usually only in the one that precedes: Some- 
times it is wholly omitted. Thus, — 
a. The antecedent may be repeated in the relative clause : as, — 


loci natira erat haec quem locum nostri délégerant (B. G. ii. 18), the 
nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this. 


§ 201.] RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 147 


4. The antecedent may appear only in the relative clause: as, — 

quas rés in consulati nostro gessimus attigit hic versibus (Arch. 28), he 

has touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship. 

urbem quam statud vestra est (Ain. i. 573), the city which [ am founding 

is yours. 

Nore. — In this case a demonstrative (is, ille, or hic) usually stands in | 
the antecedent clause: as, — 

quae pars civitatis calamitatem populd Rom4no intulerat, ea princeps 

poenas persolvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the state which had brought 
disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty. 

c. The antecedent may be entirely omitted, especially if it is 
indefinite: as, — 

qui decimae legidnis aquilam ferébat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] who bore 

the eagle of the tenth legion. 

qui cOgnOscerent misit (id. i. 21), he sent [men] fo reconnoitre (who 

should, etc.). 

d. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) agreeing with 
its antecedent in gender and number may stand in the relative 
clause : as, — 

vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 63), those most 

beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house. [Nearly equivalent 
to the vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones.| 

e. The phrase id quod or quae rés is used (instead of quod alone) 
to refer to a group of words or an idea : — 

{obtréctatum est] Gabinid dicam anne Pompéid? an utrique — id quod 

est vérius? (Manil. 57), az affront is offered — shall I say to Gabinius 
or to Pompey ? or — which is truer — to both? 


multum sunt in vénatidnibus . . . quae rés virés alit (B. G. iv. 1), chey 
: spend much time in hunting, which [practice] zncreases their strength. 
[CRS Giit.-5.] 


Nore. — But quod alone often occurs: as, — 
Cassius noster, quod mihi magnae voluptati fuit, hostem reiécerat (Fam. 
ii. 10), our friend Cassius —which was a great satisfaction to me— 
had driven back the enemy. 
201. In the use of:relatives, the following points are to 
be observed : — 


a. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in English. 
Thus, — 


148 THE SENTENCE. : [§ 201. 


liber quem mihi dedisti, the ook you gave me. 

is sum qui semper fui, 7 am the same man I always was. 

6. A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other 
construction in English; particularly of a participle, an appositive, or 
a noun of agency: as, — 

légés quae nunc sunt, che existing laws (the laws which now exist). 


Caesar qui Galliam vicit, Cesar the conqueror of Gaul (who conquered 
Gaul). 


c. In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually comes 
first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf. § 200. 4): as, — 


quae mala cum multis patimur, ea nobis levidra videntur, the evils we 
suffer [in common] wth many, seem to us lighter. 


@. The antecedent, when in apposition with the main clause, or 
with some word of it, is put in the relative clause: as, — 

firmi amici, ctiius generis est magna péniria, steadfast friends, a class of 

which there is a great lack (of which class). 

é. A relative may stand (even with another relative or an inter- 
rogative) at the beginning of a sentence or clause, where in English 
a demonstrative must be used: as, — 

quae qui audiébant, axzd those who heard this (which things). 

quae cum ita sint, and since these things are so. 

quorum quod simile factum (Cat. iv. 13), what deed of theirs like this ? 


f. i. A-relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an ante- 
cedent in the Locative case: as, — 
mortuus Ciimis qu6 sé contulerat (Liv. ii. 21), having died at Cume, 
whither he had retired. [Here in quam urbem might be used, but not 
in quas.] 
2. So, often, to express any relation of place instead of the formal 
relative pronoun (cf. whence, whereto, wherewith): as, — 
locus qué aditus non erat, a place to which (whither) there was no access. 
régna, unde genus diicis, the kingdom from which you derive your race. 
- g. The relatives qui, qualis, quantus, quot, etc., are often rendered 
simply by As! in English (§ 106. 4): as, — 
idem quod semper, the same as always. 


talis dux qualem Hannibalem novimus, such a chief as we know Hannibal 
(to have been). 


1 The English as in this use is strictly a relative, though invariable in form. 


§ 202.] _ INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 149 
h. The general construction of relatives is found in clauses intro- 
duced by relative or temporal adverbs: as, ubi, quo, unde, cum, 
quareé. 
6. Indefinite Pronouns. 


202. The Indefinite pronouns are used to indicate that 
some person or thing is meant, without designating what 
one. 

Note. — For the meanings of the compounds of qui and quis, see § 105. 


a. Of the particular indefinites meaning some or any (quis, quis- 
piam, nescid quis, aliquis, quidam), the simple quis is least definite, 
quidam most definite : as, — 
dixerit quis (quispiam), some one may say. 
aliqui philosophi ita putant, some philosophers think so. [quidam would 
mean certain particular persons defined to the speaker’s mind. ] 

habitant hic quaedam mulierés pauperculae, some poor women live here 
[z.e. some women he knows of; some women or other would be 
aliquae or nescid quae]. 

6. In a particular negative aliquis (aliqui) is regularly used, 
where in a wniversal negative quisquam (subst.) or Ullus (adj.) 
would be requited: as, — 

iistitia numquam nocet cuiquam qui eam habet (Cic.), justice mever does 

harm to anybody who possesses it. [alicui would mean ¢o somebody 
who possesses it.| 

sine aliqué metii, [you cannot do this] without some fear. 

sine alld metii, [you may do this] without any fear. 


Nore. — These pronouns are used in like manner in conditional and 
other sentences (§ 105. 2): as, — 
si quisquam, ille sapiéns fuit (Lel. 9), 7f axy man was (ever) a sage, he 
was. 
dum praesidia filla fuérunt (Rosc. Am. 126), while there were any armed 
forces (till they ceased to be). 


c. Of the general indefinites, quivis and quilibet (any you will), 
utervis (either you will, of two), are used chiefly in affirmative, 
quisquam and illus (avy at a//) in negative, interrogative, or condi- 
tional clauses : as, — 

cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest, what can happen to any [one] 

man can happen to any man [whatever]. 


4 


150 THE SENTENCE. [§ 203. 
non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum, #¢ zs 2ot every man’s luck 
to go to Corinth. [non cuiquam would mean xot any man’s.) 
minus habed virium quam vestriim utervis, 7 have less strength than 
either of you. 
- quidlibet modo aliquid (Cic.), anything you will, provided it be something. 
ciir cuiquam misi prius, why did J send to anybody before [you]? 
d. The distributives quisque (every), uterque (each), and tnus 
quisque (every single one) are used in general assertions. They are 
equivalent to a plural, and sometimes have a plural verb (cf. §-205. 


¢. 2): as, — o 


bonus liber melior est quisque qud maior, the larger a good book is, the 


better (each good book is better [in the same measure] as it is larger). 
ambo exercitiis suas quisque abeunt domds, doth armies go away, every 
man to his home. 


uterque utrique erat exercitus in cOnspectii, each army was in sight of the 
other (each to each). 


ponite ante oculds inumquemque régum, set before your eyes each of the 
kings. 
é. Quisque is regularly placed in a dependent clause, if there is one : 


quo quisque est sollertior, hdc docet iracundius (Rosc. Com. 31), the 
heener-witted a man ts, the more impatiently he teaches (as each is so, 
etc.). 


NorTE. — Quisque is generally post-positive. Thus, suum cuique, ¢o every 
man his own. 


J. Nemo, ‘xo one, is used: either 

As a substantive: as, — 

ném6 fit repenté turpissimus, 70 one suddenly becomes absolutely base. 
As an adjective pronoun: as, — 

vir némo bonus (Leg. ii. 41), 20 good man. 


Note. — Even when used as a substantive, némd may take a noun in 
apposition : as, — 


ném6 scriptor, zobody [who is] a writer. 


9. Alius and Alter. 
203. The expressions alter, . . . alter, the one . . . the 
other, alius . . . alius, ove . . . another, may be used in 


pairs to denote either divészon of a group or reciprocity of 
action: as, — 


§ 204.] VERBS. I5I 


arma ab aliis posita ab aliis érepta sunt (Marc. 31), arms were laid 
down by some and were snatched from others. 

alteri dimicant, alteri victérem timent (Fam. vi. 3), ove party fights, the 
other fears the victor. 

hi fratrés alter alterum amant, these brothers love one another. 

alius alium percontamur, we ask each other. 


a. Alius means simply other, another (of an indefinite number); 
alter, ‘he other (of two), often the second in a series; céteri and 
reliqui, a// the rest, the others; alteruter, one of the two. Thus, — 


quid aliud agis, what else are you Qoing (what other thing) ? 

ini epistulae respondi, venid ad alteram (Fam. ii. 17. 6), one letter I have 
answered, I come to the other. 

alterum genus (Cat. ii. 19), the second class. 

iécissem ipse mé potius in profundum ut céterds conservarem (Sest. 
45), 2 should have rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest. 

Servilius consul, reliquique magistratiis (B. C. iii. 21), Servilius the consul 
and the rest of the magistrates. 

cum sit necesse alterutrum vincere (Fam. vi. 3), when it must be that one 
of the two should prevail. 


6. Alius and alter are often used to express ove as well as another 
(the other) of the objects referred to: as, — 


alter cOnsulum, one of the [two] consuls. 
aliud est maledicere, aliud acciisare (Cic.), z# zs one thing to slander, 
another to accuse. 


c. Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same 
stem, expresses shortly a double statement: as, — 


alius aliud petit, one man seeks one thing, one another (another seeks 
another thing). 

alius alia via civitatem auxérunt (Liv. i. 21), shes enlarged the State, each 
in his own way. 


IV. VERBS, 
x. Verb and Subject, 
204. (RULE 4.) A Finite verb agrees with its Subject 
in Number and Person: as, — 


ego statud, J resolve. . 
silent légés inter arma, the laws are dumb in time of war. 


152 THE SENTENCE. [§ 205. 


Nore. — In verb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with 
the subject in gender and number (§ 186): as, — 

oratio est habita, she plea was delivered. 

bellum exortum est, a war arose. 

a. A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the 
expressed or implied antecedent: as, — 

adsum qui féci (Ain. ix. 427), here am I who did it. 

b. The verb sometimes agrees in number, a participle in the verb- 
form in number and gender, with,an appositive or predicate noun: 
as, — 

non omnis error stultitia est dicenda (Div. ii. 90), ot every error should 

be called folly. 

Corinthus limen Graeciae exstinctum est, Corinth, the light of Greece, is 

put out. 


2. Double Subject. 


205. Two or more singular subjects take a verb in the 
plural: as, — 

pater et avus mortui sunt, 7s father and grandfather are dead. 

a. When subjects are of different Devsons, the verb is in the frst 
person rather than the second, and in the second rather than the 
third: as, — 

si ti et Tullia valétis ego et Cicerd valémus (Fam. xiv. 5), if you and 

Tullia are well, Ciceroand I are well. [Notice that the first person 
is also first in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.] 

Norte. —In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows 
the rule for predicate adjectives ; see § 187. 4, c. 

6. If the subjects are connected by disjunctives, or if they are con- 
sidered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular: as, — 

quem neque fidés neque iiisiiirandum neque illum misericordia repressit 

(Ter. Ad. 306), ot faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him. 
Senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v. 8), the Roman Senate 

and people understand. But, — neque Caesar neque ego habiti 

essémus (Fam. xi. 20), either C. nor I should have been considered. 

c. A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular ; as, — 

Senatus haec intellegit (Cat. i. 2), the Senate is aware of this. 

ad hiberna exercitus redit (Liv. xxi. 22), the army returns to winter 

quarters. 


§ 206.] INCOMPLETE SENTENCES. 153 


1. But the plural is often found with collective nouns when zva7- 
viduals are thought of : as, — 
pars praedas agébant (Jug. 32), a part brought in booty. 
' cum tanta multitidd lapidés cénicerent (B. G. ii. 6), when such a crowd 
was throwing stones. 
Note. — The point of view may change in the course of a sentence: as, — 
equitatum omnem ... quem habébat praemittit, qui videant (B. G. i. 1 15)s 
he sent ahead all the cavalry he had, to see (who should see). 
2. Quisque has very often a plural verb, but may be considered 
as in apposition with a plural subject implied (cf. § 202. 7): as, — 
sibi quisque habeant quod suum est (Plaut. Curc.), /et every one keep 
his own (let them keep every man his own). 
d@. When a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, it 
may agree with one and be understood with the others: as, — 


intercédit M. Antonius et Cassius tribini plébis (B. C. i. 2), Antony and 
Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose. 


3. Incomplete Sentences. 


206. The subject of the verb is sometimes omitted. 
Thus, — 

aA personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless em- 
phatic. “Thus, — 

loquor, 7 speak. But, ego loquor, z¢ zs 7 that speak. 

6. An indefinite subject is often omitted. 


This is usually a plural, as in dicunt, ferunt, perhibent (hey say); 
but sometimes singular, as in inquit (Tusc. i. 93), ove says (referring 
to a class of reasoners just spoken of). 


c. The verb is often omitted. Thus, — 

1. Dic, facid, agd, and other verbs in familiar phrases: as, — 

quérsum haec [spectant], what does this aim at ? 

ex ungue lednem [cognoscés], you will know a lion by his claw. 

quid multa, what need of many words (why should I say much)? 

quid? quod, what of this, that, etc. (what shall I say of this, that, etc.) ? 
[A form of transition.] 


2. The copula sum, very commonly in the indicative and infinitive, 
rarely (except by late authors) in the subjunctive: as, — 


154 THE SENTENCE. [$§ 207, 208. 


_ tii conitinx (Ain. iv. 113), you [are] his wife. 
omnia praeclara rara (Lel. 79), a// the best things are rare. 
accipe quae peragenda prius (/En. vi. 136), hear what is first to be accom- 
plished. [Direct : quae peragenda prius ?] 


V. PARTICLES. 


zr. Adverbs. 
207. (RULE 10.) Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, 
Adjectives, and other Adverbs. . 


a. A Demonstrative or Relative adverb is often equivalent to the 
corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see § 201. f): as, — 
ed milités impdnere (B. G. i. 42), 0” them (thereon, on the horses) he 
puts the soldiers. 
qui eum necasset unde ipse natus esset (Rosc. Am. 71), oe who should 
have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth). 


6. The adverbs propius, zear,; proximé, ext (like the adjectives 
propior, proximus); pridié, ‘le day before ; postridie, the day after, 
are sometimes followed by the accusative (see § 261. a). 

The adverbs palam, ofenly; procul, afar; simul, at the same 
time, are sometimes followed by the ablative (see § 261. 4). 


Nore. — Pridié and postridié are often used with the genitive. Clam, 
without the knowledge of, may take the accusative, the ablative, or the geni- 
tive (§ 261. c). 


c. Many perfect participles used as nouns regularly retain the 
adverb which modified them as participles : as, — 


praeclaré factum, a glorious deed (a thing gloriously done). 


d. Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which contain a verbal 
idea (cf. § 188. Z): as, — 

populus laté réx (Ain. i. 21), a people ruling far and wide. 

hinc abitid (Plaut.), a going away from here. 


2. Conjunctions. 
Note. — For the classification of conjunctions, see §§ 154, 155. 
208. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect 


similar constructions, and are regularly followed by. the 
same case or mood that precedes them: as, — 


§ 208.] CONJUNCTIONS. 155 


scriptum senatui et populd (Cat. iii. 10), wrztten to the senate and people. 

ut eas [partis] sanarés et confirmarés (Mil. 68), that you might cure 
and strengthen those parts. 

neque mea priidentia neque himanis consiliis frétus (Cat. ii. 29), rely- 
ing neither on my own foresight nor on human wisdom. 


a. Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tanquam, quasi) 
also commonly connect similar constructions: as, — 


his igitur quam physicis potius crédendum existimas (Div. ii. 37), do you 
think these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers ? 

ut non omne vinum sic non omnis natiira vetustate coacéscit (Cat. Maj. 
65), as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature. 

Cf. pérge ut instituisti (Rep. ii. 22), go on as you have begun. 


4. Two or more co-ordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often 
put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyadeton): as, — 


omnés di, hominés, a// gods and men. 
liberi, servi, freemen and slaves. 


1. With more than two co-ordinate words, etc., a conjunction, if 
used at all, must be used with all (or all except the first): as, — 
aut aere aliénd aut magnitidine tribitdrum aut iniiria potentidrum 
(B. G. vi. 13), dy debt, excessive taxation, or oppression on the part of 
the powerful. 
summa fidé et constantia et itistitia, with perfect good faith, [and] con- 
sistency, and justice. (Not fidé constantia et iiistitia, as in English.] 


2. But words are often so divided into groups that the members 
of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups 
themselves express the conjunction (or omit it): as, — 

propudium illud et portentum, L. Antdnius insigne odium omnium 
hominum (Phil. xiv. 8), that wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, 
the abomination of all men. 


3. The enclitic -que is sometimes used with the last member of a 
series, even when there is no grouping apparent: as, — 
voce vultii mGtiique (Brut. 110), dy voice, expression, and gesture. 
mult6 stiddre labGre vigiliisque (Caecil. 72), with much fatigue, toil, 
and waking. 
c. Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly con- 


nected by a conjunction; as, — 
multae et gravés causae, many weighty reasons. 


156 THE SENTENCE. [§ 209. 


d. Many words properly adverbs may be used correlatively, and 
so become conjunctions, partly or wholly losing their adverbial force 
(see § 107). Such are — 


cum... tum, while ... so also (both ... and). 
tum... tum, ow ... now. i 
modo ... modo, mow ... now. 
simul ... simul, at the same time ... at the same time (at once ... as 
well as). 
qua ... qua, mow ... now. 
nunc... nunc, mow ... now. 
Thus, — 


cum difficile est, tum né aecum quidem (Lzl. 26), sot only is it diffi- 
cult, but even unjust. 

modo ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 712), ow he says yes, now no. 

simul gratias agit, simul gratulatur (Q.C. vi. 7,15), 4e thanks him and at 
the same time congratulates him. 


¢. Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together, 
for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what 
precedes: as, at vér0, dut in truth, still, however, itaque ergo, 
accordingly then; namque, for; et-enim, for, you see (§ 156. @). 


F. For conjunctions introducing subjunctive clauses, see $$ 316 /f 


3. Negative Particles. 


Nore. — For the list of negative particles, see § 149. ¢. 


209. Inthe use of the Negative Particles, the following 
points are to be observed : — 


a. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative, as in English 
(§ 150): as, ném6 non videt, everybody sees. 
But a general negation is not destroyed — 
1. By a following né ... quidem, of even, or ndn modo, not 
only: as,— . 
numquam tii ndn modo Gtium, sed né bellum quidem nisi nefarium con- 
cupisti (Cat. i. 25), sot only have you never desired repose, but you 
have never desired any war except one which was infamous. 
2. By succeeding negatives, each introducing a separate sub- 
ordinate member: as, — 
eaque nesciébant nec ubi nec qualia essent (Tusc. iii. 4), they Anew not 
where or of what kind these things were. 


§ 209.] NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 157 


3. By neque introducing a co-ordinate member : as, — 


nequed satis mirari neque conicere (Ter. Eun. 547), 7 cannot wonder 
enough nor conjecture. 


6. The negative is frequently joined to some other word. Hence 
the forms of negation in Latin differ from those in English in many 
expressions. Thus, — 


neque (nec), and not, but not (neither ... nor) (not et non). 

nec quisquam, avd no one (nor any one) (not et némd). 

nilli or neutri créd6, 7 do not believe either (I believe neither) (not non 
crédé alli). 

nego haec esse véra, / say this is not true (I deny that these things are 
true) (not dicd non esse). 

sine illd periculd (less commonly cum nill6), with no danger (without 
any danger). 

nihil unquam audivi itcundius, 7 xever heard anything more amusing 
(nothing more amusing have I ever heard). 


c. A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary 
(Litotes): as, — 
non haec sine nimine divOm éveniunt (/En. ii. 777), these things do not 


occur without the will of the gods. 
haec nOn nimis exquird (Att. vii. 18, 3), 2ot very much, i.e. very little. 


Norte. — Compare n6nnillus, ndnnémé, etc. (§ 150. @). 


@. The particle imm6, zay, is used to contradict some part of a 
preceding statement or question, or its form; in the latter case, the 
same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that immo 
becomes nearly equivalent to yes (ay but, nay rather): as, — 


causa igitur non bona est? imm6 optima (Att. ix. 7), zs the cause then not 
a good one? on the contrary, the best. 
é. Minus, /ess (especially with si, 74 qu6, zz order that), and 
minimé, /eas¢, often have a negative force. Thus, — 
si minus possunt, zf they cannot. [For qué minus, see §§ 310. c, 331. ¢.] 


audacissimus ego ex omnibus? minimé (Rosc. Am. 2), am J the boldest . 
of them all? by no means (not at all). 


[For do zot in Prohibitions, see § 2609. a.] 


gt AT Fee ee lf ee er ea 


Dun Ont tit 


15 THE SENTENCE. [§ 210. 


Omfor) 


vi. QUESTIONS. 


Questions are either Direct or Indirect. 


1. A Direct Question gives the exact words of the er: as,— 

quid est? whatis it? 

2. An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, 
adapted to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It de- 
pends on a verb or other expression of asking, doubting, knowing, 
or the like : as, — 

rogavit quid esset, he asked what it was. [Direct : quid est, what zs it ?] 

nescio ubi sim, 7 know not where Jam. [Direct: ubi sum, where am J ?] 

Questions in Latin are introduced by special interroga- 
tive words, and are not distinguished by the order of 
words, as in English. 

Norte. — For the list of Interrogative Particles, see § 149. d. 

or ual a. (RULE 11.) A question of simple fact, requiring the answer 
YES or NO, is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word : 
as, — See 
tine id veritus es (Cic.), did you fear that? 

hicine vir usquam nisi in patria moriétur (Mil. 104), ska//.THIS man 

die anywhere but in his native land ? 

6. The interrogative particle -ne is sometimes omitted : as, — 

patére tua consilia ndn sentis (Cat. i. 1), do you not see that your schemes 

are manifest (you do not see, eh)? / 

Nore—In such cases no sign of gor appears except in the 
punctuation, and it is often doubtful whether th¢ sentence is a question or 
an ironical statement. 

-—~¢, (RULE 12.) When the enclitic -ne is i to a negative word, 
as in nOnne,—an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num 
suggests a megative answer. Thus, — 

nonne animadvertis (N. D. iii. 80), do you not Sheeran ? 

num dubium est (Rosc. Am. 107), there is no doubt, is there ? 

~~ ad. The particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonly 
when added to some other word, has the force of n6nne: as, — 
meministine mé in senatii dicere (Cat. i. 7), don’t you remember my say- 
ing in the Senate ? 

récténe interpretor sententiam tuam (Tusc. iii. 37), do 7 not rightly 

interpret your meaning ? 


ORL (PAAA 
§ 211.] : DOUBLE QUESTIONS. 159 
nL NLOM. "ee 
NoTE.— This was evidently the original meaning of -ne; but in most 
cases the negative force was lost, and -ne was used merely to express a ques- 
tion. So the English interrogative o ? shades off into eh ? 
— _ ¢. A question concerning some special circumstance is formed by 
prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb (§ 106), 
as in English : as, — 


quid est quod iam amplius exspectés (Cat. i. 6), what is there for you to 
look for any more ? 

qué igitur haec spectant (Fam. vi. 6), whither, then, is all this tending ? 

Icare, ubi es (Ov. M. viii. 232), Zearus, where are you? 


REMARK. — A question of this form becomes an exclamation by chang- 
ing the inflection of the voice: as, qualis vir erat! what a man he was! 
quot calamitatés passi sumus! how many misfortunes have we suffered ! 


J. The particles nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to inter- 
rogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis : as, — 


quisnam est, fray who is it? [quis tandem est ? would be stronger. ] 

ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are we? 

in qua tandem urbe hoc disputant (Mil. 7), 2 what city, pray, do they 
maintain this ? 


In indirect questions num loses its peculiar force (§ 210. ¢). 


Double Questions. 


211.) A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry 
as to which of two or more supposed cases is true. 

In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum or -ne, 
whether, stands in the first member; an, anne, oy, anndn, 
necne, or uot, in the second; and usually an in the third, 
if there be one: as, — 


utrum nescis, an pro nihild id putas (Fam. x. 26), zs zt that you don’t know, 
or do you think nothing of it ? 

quaero servosne an liberds (Rosc. Am. 74), 7 ask whether slaves or free. 

REMARK. — Annon is more common in direct questions, necne in indirect. 


a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first member ; 
in which case an or -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second: as, — 
Gabini6é dicam anne Pompéi6 an utrique (Man. 57), skal J say to Gabi- 
nius, or to Pompey, or to both? 
sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 41), ave these your words or not ? 


tt 


oy = eh bee a oo A, Ss ee ee 


CLAAAALA tow MLC 
160 THE SENTENCE. [§ 212. 
Qa fot nme) aN ie 
6. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, aA an Guithe) 
alone asks the question, — usually with indignation or surprise : as, — 
an ti miserds putas illds (Tusc. i. 13), what! do you think those men 
wretched ? 


c. Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum 
may ask a question to which there is no alternative : as, — 
utrum in clarissimis est civibus is, quem... (Flacc. 45), zs he among the 


noblest citizens, whom, etc.? 


d. The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative 
questions : — 








eee -ne....an 

La RT SE 
utrum... annon —— .-.-ne, necne 
—— _an (anne) -ne._...necne 


wa Question and Answer. 
) There i Latin word i 

212, ere Is no one Latin word 1n common use mean- 
ing simply yes or zo. In answering a question affirma- 
tively, the verb or some other emphatic word is generally 
repeated; in answering wegatively, the verb, etc., with 
non or a similar negative : as, — 

valetne, zs he well ? valet, yes (he is well). 

eratne técum, was he with you ? non erat, zo (he was not). 

numquidnam novi, there is nothing new, is there ? nihil sané, of | nothing. 


“yy a. An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is some- 
times used to answer a direct question : thus, — 


4. 1. For YES :— 


ee 


etiam, even so, yes, etc. ita vérd, certainly (so in truth), etc. 
vero, in truth, true, no doubt, yes. sané quidem, yes, no doubt, etc. 
ita, so, true, etc. ita est, zt zs so, true, etc. 


sané, surely (soundly), 20 doubt, doubtless, etc. 
certé, certainly, most assuredly, unquestionably, etc. 


4 2, For No:— 


non, zot [so]. nillo mods, dy xo means. 
minimé, ot az al/ (in the smallest degree, cf. § 209. ¢). 

minimé vérd, 20, not by any means ; oh! no, etc. 

non quidem, why, no; certainly not, etc. 

‘non hercle vér6, why, gracious, no (certainly not, by Hercules) ! 


Ye aA C/ Vwi 


AD We OnA40r hh, 


§ 212.] QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 161 
Cr OS 


Examples are :— 

quidnam ? an laudatiOnés ? ita, why, what ? is it eulogies ? just so. 

aut etiam aut nén respondére (Acad. ii. 104), 40 answer (categorically) 
yes or No. . 

estne ut fertur forma? sané (Ter. Eun. 360), zs [she] as handsome as they 
say she is (is her beauty as it is said) ? oh! yes. 

fugisne hinc? ego vérd ac lubéns (Ter. And. 337), wll you clear out from 
here ? indeed I will, and be glad to. 

miser ergo Archelaus? certé si initistus (Tusc. v..35), was Archelaus 
wretched then? certainly, if he was unjust. 

haec contemnitis ? minimé (De Or. ii. 295), do you despise these things ? 
not at all. 

volucribusne et feris? minimé vérd (Tusc. i. 104), ¢o the birds and 
beasts? why, of course not. 

ex tui animi sententia tu uxdrem habés? non hercle, ex mei animi sen- 
tentia (De Or. ii. 260), Lord! no, etc. 


6. In answering a double question, one member of the alternative, 
or some part of it, must be repeated : as, — 
tiine an frater erat, was it you or your brother? ego [eram], zt was J. 


REMARK. — From double questions must be distinguished those which 
are in themselves single, but of which some detail only is alternative. These 
have the common disjunctive particles aut or vel (-ve): as, — 

quaero num iniiisté aut improbé fécerit (Off. iii. 54), 7 ask whether he 

acted unjustly or even dishonestly. 


Here there is no double question. The only inquiry is whether the man 
did either of the two things supposed, not which of the two he did. 


CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. 


1. GENITIVE. 


NoTE. — The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of one 
noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective case, to dis- 
tinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which may be called adverbial 
cases. Its uses may be classified as follows : — 


va 


1. Of Possession (§ 214). 
2. Of Source developed into Material (§ 214. ¢). 
I. GENITIVE WITH } 3. Of Quality (§ 215). 
Nouns: 4. Of the Whole, after words designating a Part 
(Partitive, § 216). 
ha L 5. With Nouns of Action and Veeling (§ 217). . 


pr, Ine » <e lgeee aed 





162 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [$§ 213, 214. 


II. GENITIVE WITH { 1. Relative adjective (or Verbal) (§ 218. a, 4). 
ADJECTIVES: ( 2. Of Specification (later use) (§ 218. c). 


III. GENITIVE WITH { 1. Of Memory, Feeling, etc. (§§ 219, 221-23). 
VERBS: 2. Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) (§ 220). 


I. GENITIVE WITH NOUNS. 


218. (RuLE14.) A noun used to limit or define another, 
and zo¢ meaning the same person or thing, is put in the 
Genitive. 

This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the pre- 
position OF: as, — 

libri Cicer6nis, the books of Cicero, Cicero’s books. 

talentum auri, @ talent of gold. 

vir summae virtiitis, @ man of the greatest courage. 

pars militum, a part of the soldiers. 

cultus dedrum, worship of the gods. 

vacatio laboris, a respite from toil. 

victor omnium gentium, conqueror of all nations. 

In most constructions the genitive is either Subjective 
or Objective. 

1. The Subjective genitive denotes that to which the noun limited 
belongs, or from which it is derived (§ 214). 

(_2. The Objective genitive denotes that towards which an action or 
feeling is directed (§ 217 ff.). 

This distinction is illustrated by the following example. The 
phrase amor patris, Jove of a father, may mean love felt by a father, 
a father’s love (subjective genitive), or love sowards a father (ob- 
jective genitive). ee 


214, (RULE 15.) The Subjective Genitive is used with 


a noun to denote (1) the Author or Owner, (2) the Source 
or the Material, (3) the Quality. 


1. Possessive Genitive. 
a. 1. The Possessive Genitive denotes the author or 
owner : as, — 


libri CicerGnis, the dooks of (written by) Cicero. 
Alexandri ecus, Alexander’s horse. 


§ 214.] POSSESSIVE GENITIVE. 163 


2. For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjec- 
tive is often used,—regularly for the possessive genitive of the 
personal pronouns (§§ 190, 197. @): as,— 


liber meus, my book. [Not liber mei.] 
aliéna pericula, other men’s dangers. [But also alidrum.] 
Sullana tempora, the times of Sulla. [Oftener Sullae.] 


4. The noun limited is understood in a few expressions: as, — 


ad Castoris [aedés], fo the [temple] of Castor (cf. English, St. Peter’s). 
Hectoris Andromaché (En. iii. 319), Hector’s [wife] Andromache. 
Flaccus Claudi, F/accus [slave] of Claudius. 


c. The possessive genitive is often in the predicate, connected with 
its noun by a verb: as,— 


haec domus est patris mei, ¢his house is my father’s. 

titélae nostrae [eds] diiximus (Liv.), we held them [to be] i our protec- 
tion. 

compendi facere, fo save (make of saving). 

lucri facere, ¢o get the benefit of (make of profit). 

iam mé Pompéi totum esse scis (Fam. ii. 13), you know J am now all for 
Pompey (all Pompey’s). 


REMARK. — These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in 
§ 213 that a predicate noun bears to an appositive (§§ 184, 185). 


d. An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited 
by a genitive in the predicate: as, — 


neque sui iiidici [erat] décernere (B. C. i. 35), mor was it for his judg- 
ment to decide (nor did it belong to his judgment). 

ciiiusvis hominis est errare (Cic.), 7 is any man’s [liability] ¢o err. 

timidi est optare necem (Ov. M. iv. 115), zt ts for the coward to wish for 
death. 

sapientis (not sapiéns) est pauca loqui, 7¢ 7s wise (the part of a wise man) 
to say little. 


REMARK. — This construction is regular with adjectives of the third 
declension instead of the neuter nominative (see the last example). 


Norte.— A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the geni- 
tive in this construction, and must be used for the genitive of a personal 
pronoun: as, — 


mentiri nén est meum (not mei), 7¢ zs not for me to lie. 
hiimanum (for hominis) est errare, ¢¢ is man’s nature to err (to err is 
human). 


164 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [S§ 215, 216. 


2. Genitive of Material. 


e. The genitive may denote the Substance or Material 
of which a thing consists (compare §§ 216, 244): as,— 

talentum auri, a ¢alent of gold. 

flimina lactis, rzvers of milk. 

J. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in appo- 
sition (§ 183): as,— 

nomen insaniae (for nomen insania), ‘he word madness. 


oppidum Antiochiae (for oppidum Antiochia, the regular form), the city 
of Antioch. [A very loose use of this genitive, cf. ¢.] 


3. Genitive of Quality. 

215. The genitive is used to denote Quality, but only 
when the quality is modified by an adjective : as, — 

vir summae virtiitis, a man of the highest courage. [But not vir virtitis. ] 

magnae est déliberationis, z¢ 7s an affair of great deliberation. 

ille autem sui itidici (Nep. Att. 9), du¢ he [a man] of independent (his 

own) judgment. 

a. The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases Gius 
modi, ctlius modi (equivalent to talis, such, qualis, of what sort). 

é. The genitive of quality, with numerals, is used to define meas- 
ures of length, depth, etc. (Genitive of measure): as, — 

fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth]. 

miirus sédecim pedum, a wall of sixteen feet [high]. 

c. For Genitives of Quality used to express zudefinite value, see 
§ 252. a. 


4. Partitive Genitive. 


216. (RULE 16.) Words denoting a Part are followed 


by the genitive of the Whole to which the part belongs. ms 
ords, followed by the ger 


a. Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are— 
1. Nouns or pronouns: as, — 
pars militum, part of the soldiers. 


quis nostriim, which of us (cf. e, below)? 
nihil erat reliqui, there was nothing left. 





§ 216.] PARTITIVE GENITIVE. 165 


z. Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal words 
like alius, etc.: as, — 
alter cOnsulum, one of the [two] consuls. 
iinus tribiindrum, one of the tribunes (cf. c, below). 
plirimum totius Galliae equitatii valet (B. G. v, 3), 2s strongest in cavalry 
of all Gaul. 
maior fratrum, the elder of the brothers. 


3. Neuter adjectives and pronouns, used as nouns: as, — 
Ab eiws 








tantum spati, so much [of] space. 

aliquid numm6rum, a few pence (something of coins). 

id loci (or loc6rum), that spot of ground. Also at that time. 

id temporis, at that time (§ 240. 6). 

plana urbis, ¢he level parts of the town. 

quid novi, what news (what of new) ? 

REMARK. — The genitive of adjectives of the third declension is rarely 
used partitively. Thus, — 

nihil novi (gen.), zothing new; but 

nihil memorabile (nom.), xothing worth mention. [Not nihil memo- 

rabilis. ] 
4. Adverbs, especially of Quantity and Place: as, — 





satis peciiniae, money enough (enough of money). 

parum 6ti, ot much ease (too little of ease). 

tum temporis, at that point of time (then of time). 

ubinam gentium sumus, where in the world are we (where of nations) ? 


6. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive after 
adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case : as, — 

sequimur té sancte dedrum (En. iv. 576), we follow thee, O holy deity. 

[For sancte deus. } 

c. Cardinal numerals regularly take the Ablative with € (ex) or 
dé instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quidam commonly, 
and other words occasionally ; as, — 

tinus ex tribiinis, one of the tribunes. [But also, inus tribindrum. ] 

minumus ex illis (Jug. 11), the youngest of them. 

quidam ex militibus, certain of the soldiers. 

@, Uterque, oth (properly each), and quisque, cach, with Nouns 
are used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns always take a 
partitive genitive : as, — 

uterque consul, doth the consuls ; but, uterque nostrim, doth of us. 

tinus quisque vostriim, cach one of you. 


166 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [$§ 217, 218. 


e. Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any 
thing, take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So 
also words denoting a part if only that part is thought of : as, — 
"nds omnés, a// of us (we all). [Notomnés nostrim] but nostrim omnium. 
quot sunt hostés, how many of the enemy are there ? 
multi milités, many of the soldiers. 


5. Objective Genitive. 


The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, 
and Verbs. 


217. (RuLE 17.) Nouns of action, agency, and feeling 
govern the genitive of the object: as, — 

désiderium 6ti, longing for rest. 

gratia benefici, gratitude for kindness. 

fuga malorum, refuge from disaster. 

precatio dedrum, prayer to the gods. 

Nore. — This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Pos- 
sessive Genitive). 

a. The objective genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive or 
other derivative adjective (see § 197. a. 2): as, — 

mea invidia, my unpopularity (the dislike of which I am the object). 

metus hostilis (Jug. 41), fear of the enemy (hostile fear). 

6. Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already limited 
by another genitive : as, — 

animi multarum rérum percursid (Tusc. iv. 31), the mind’s traversing of 

many things. 

c. A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objective 
genitive : as, — 

odium in Caesarem, hate of Cesar. [Cf. odium Caesaris, note above. ] 

merita erga mé (Cic.), services to me. 

excéssus € vita (id.), departure from life. [Also, excéssus vitae, Cic.] 


II. GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES. 


218. Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern 
the objective genitive. > eg 





These are called Relative Adjectives (adiectiva relativa) or Tran- 
sitive Adjectives, and include the following : — 





§ 218.] OBJECTIVE GENITIVE. 167 







~ (RULE 18.) Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, 
S#iness, powers, hearing, guilt, and their opposites : as, — 


avidus laudis, greedy of praise. 

fastididsus litterarum, disdaining letters. 

iiiris peritus, ski//ed in law. [So, also, the ablative, iiire, cf. § 253.] 
‘rei militaris imperitus, wsskilled in military science. 

ratidnis et 6ratiOnis expertés, devoid of sense and speech. 

vostri memor, mindful of you. 

pléenus fidei, fd? of good faith. 

impoténs irae, ungovernable in anger. 

particeps conitiratiOnis, sharing in the conspiracy. 

insons culpae, zznocent of guilt. 


6. (RULE 18.). Verbals in -ax (§ 164. 7); also participles in -ns 
when used as adjectives, (z.¢. to denote a disposition and not a 
particular act): as, — 


tenacem propositi virum (Hor. Od. iii, 3), @ man steadfast to his purpose. 

circus capax populi (Ov.), @ circus big enough to hold the people. 

si quem tui amantidrem cégnGvisti (Q. Fr. i. 1. 15), Zf you have become 
acquainted with any one more fond of you. 

multitiid6 insoléns belli (B. C. ii. 36), @ crowd unused to war. 


Nore. 1.— Participles in -ns, when used as participles, take the case 
regularly governed by the verb to which they belong: as, — 
Tiberius sitiéns sanguinem (Tac.), 7zderius [then] thirsting for blood. 


Norte 2.— Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles 
(see note 1), even when they express a disposition or character: as, — 
virttis quam alii ipsam temperantiam dicunt esse, alii obtemperantem 
temperantiae praeceptis et eam subsequentem (Tusc. iv. 30), oé- 
servant of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her. 


c. The poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any 
adjective, to denote that with reference to which the quality exists 
(Genttive of Specification) : as, — 

callidus rei militaris (Tac. H. ii. 31), skilled in soldiership. 

pauper aquae (Hor. Od. iii. 30. 11), scant of water. 

fessi rérum (Ain. i. 178), weary of toil. 

REMARK. — Adjectives of fee/ing are followed by the apparent genitive 
animi (really locative, cf. § 223. ¢) : as, — 


168 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [$ 219. 


III. GENITIVE WITH VERBS. 


The Objective Genitive is used with some verbs. 


1. Remembering and Forgetting. 


219. (RULE 19.) Verbs of Remembering and Forget- 
ting take the Genitive of the object when they are used 
of a continued state of mind, but the Accusative when 
used of a stugle act: as, — 

I. Genitive : — 

recordans superioris transmissionis (Att. iv. 19), ~emembering your former 

crossing. 

animus meminit praeteritorum (Div. i. 63), the soul remembers the past. 

venit mihi in mentem illius diéi, 7 dethink me of that day (it comes into 

my mind of that day). 

obliviscere caedis atque incendidrum (Cat. i. 6), turn your mind from 

slaughter and conflagrations. 


2. Accusative :— 
totam causam oblitus est (Brut, 217), 4e forgot the whole case. 
pueritiae memoriam recordari (Arch. 1), to recall the memory of childhood. . 


a. The Accusative is almost always used of a person or thing re- 
membered by an eye-witness : as, — 


memineram Paullum (Lzl. 9), 7 remembered Paulus. 


6. Recordor, recollect, recall, denotes a single act and is therefore 
almost always followed by the Accusative : as, — 

recordamini omnis civilis dissénsidnés (Cat. iii. 24), recall all the civil 

wars. / 

c. Verbs of reminding take with the accusative of the person a 
genitive of the thing ; except in the case of a neuter pronoun, which 
is put in the accusative (cf. § 238. 4). 

Catilina admonébat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae (Sall. Cat. 21), 


Catiline reminded one of his poverty, another of his cupidity. 
inum illud monére té possum, / can remind you of this one thing. 


So admoned, commoned, commonefacis, commonefiso. But 


moneo with the genitive is found only in late writers (cf. § 238. 4. 
note). 


§ 220.] CHARGE AND PENALTY. 169 


Nore. — All these verbs often take dé with the ablative, and the accusa- 
tive of nouns as well as of pronouns is sometimes used with them: as, — 


saepius té admoned dé syngrapha Sittiana (Fam. viii. 4, 5), 7 remind you 
again and again of the bond of Sittius. 

officium vestrum ut vos mal6é cogatis commoné€rier (Plaut. Ps. 150), 40 be 
reminded of your duty. 


2. Charge and Penalty. 


220. (RULE 20.) Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and 
acquitting-take the genitive of the charge or penalty : as, — 

arguit mé furti, Le accuses me of theft. 

vided non té absoliitum esse improbitatis, sed ill6s damnatés esse caedis 


(Verr. II. i, 72), 7 see, not that you were acquitted of outrage, but that 
they were condemned for homicide. 





a. Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are — 


capitis, as in damn§re capitis, Zo sentence to death. 

mAiestatis [laesae], ¢reason (crime against the dignity of the State). 

repetundarum [rérum], exfortion (lit. of an action for claiming back money 
wrongfully taken). 

voti, in damnatus or reus voti, ound [to the payment] of one’s vow ; i.e. 
successful in one’s effort. 

peciiniae (damnare, itidicare, see note under 3, below). 

dipli, etc., as in diipli condemnare, condemn to pay twofold. 


6. Other constructions for the charge or penalty are — 


1. The ablative of price : regularly of a definite amount of fine, 
and often of indefinite penalties (cf. § 252. note): as, — 


Frusinatés tertia parte agri damnati (Liv. x. 1), the people of Frusino con- 
demned [to forfeit] a third part of their land. 
vitia autem hominum atque fraudés damnis igndminiis vinculis verbe- 
ribus exsiliis morte damnantur (De Or. i. 194), but the vices and crimes 
of men are punished with fines, dishonor, chains, scourging, exile, death. 


2. The ablative with dé, or the accusative with inter, in idiomatic 
expressions : as, — 
dé alea, for gambling. 
dé ambitii, for bribery. 
inter sicarids, as an assassin (among the assassins). 
dé vi et maiestatis damnati (Phil. 1, 21), convicted of assault and 
treason. 


S170 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§§ 221, 222. 


3. Verbs of Feeling. 


221. Many verbs of Feeling take the genitive of the 
object which excites the feeling. Thus, — 

a. Verbs of pity, as misereor and miserésc6, are followed by the 
genitive : as, — 

miseréscite régis (Ain. viii. 573), pity the king. 

miserére animi non digna ferentis (id. ii. 144), Arty a soul, etc. 

But miseror, commiseror, dewaz/, take the accusative : as, — 


commiinem condicidnem miserari (Mur. 55), dewadl the common Jot. 


6. The impersonals miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet (or 
pertaesum est) take the Genitive of the cause of the feeling and the 
Accusative of the person affected: as, — - 
hds hominés infamiae suae neque pudet neque taedet (Verr. i. 35), these 
men are neither ashamed nor weary of their dishonor. [Cf. it repenteth 
him of the evil.) 

mé quidem miseret parietum ipsdrum (Phil. ii. 69), for my part J pity the 
very walls. 

c. An infinitive, a clause, or the accusative (possibly nominative) of 
a neuter pronoun may be used with these impersonal verbs (except 
miseret) instead of the genitive of a noun: as, — 

mé paenitet haec fécisse, / repent of having done this. 

nihil quod paenitére possit (Cic.), zothing that may cause repentance. 


4. /nterest and Réfert. 


222. The impersonals interest and réfert take the geni- 
tive of the person (rarely of the thing) affected: as, — 
Clodi intererat Milonem perire (Mil. 56), z¢ was the interest of Clodius that 
Milo should die. 
vided enim quid mea intersit, quid utriusque nostriim (Fam. vii. 23), for 
I see what is for my good and for the good of us both. 
The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive clause. 
a. Instead of the Genitive of a Personal Pronoun the correspond- 
ing Possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine with interest 
or réfert: as, — 


quid tua id réfert? magni (Ter. Ph. 723), Aow does that concern you? 
much. [See also the last example above. ] 


§ 223.] VERBS OF PLENTY AND WANT. I71 


6. The accusative with ad is used with interest and réfert to ex- 
press the thing with reference to which one is interested: as, — 

magni ad hondrem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. 1), z¢ zs of great conse- 

quence to our honor. 
réfert ad friictiis (Varr. R. R. i. 16), 2¢ makes a difference as to the crop. 
5. Verbs of Plenty and Want. 

223. Some verbs of Plenty and Want govern the geni- 
tive : as, — 

quid est quod défénsidnis indigeat? (Rosc. Am. 34), what zs there that 


needs defence ? 
satagit rérum suarum, he has his hands full with his own affairs. 


Nore. — But verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the abla- 
tive (see §§ 243. a, 248. c), except eged, indiged, satago. 


6. Other Verbs. 
a. The genitive sometimes follows potior, get Possession of ; as 
always in the phrase potiri rérum, fo de master of affairs. Thus, — 


illius régni potiri (Fam. i. 7, 5), 40 become master of that kingdom. 
Cleanthés solem dominari et rérum potiri putat (Ac. ii. 126), Cleanthes 
thinks the sun holds sway and is lord of the universe. 


But potior usually takes the ablative (see § 249). 
4. Some other verbs rarely take the Genitive — 
1. By analogy with those mentioned in § 221 : as, — * 


neque hiiius sis veritus féminae primariae (Ter. Ph. 971), and you had 
no respect for this high-born lady. 


2. As akin to adjectives which take the genitive : as, — 


fastidit mei (Plaut. Aul. 243), Ze disdains me. ([Cf. fastididsus. | 
studet tui (quoted N. D. iii. 72), Ze zs zealous for you. [Cf. studidsus.] 


c. The apparent genitive animi (really Locative) is used with a 
few verbs of feeling and the like (cf. § 218. c. Rem.): as, — 
Antipho mé excruciat animi (Ter. Ph. 187), Antipho tortures my mind 
(me in my mind). 
IV. PECULIAR GENITIVES. 
‘d. A genitive occurs rarely in Exclamations, in imitation of the 
Greek (Genitive of Exclamation): as, — 


di immortalés, mercimGni lepidi (Plaut. Most. 912), good heavens! what 
a charming bargain ! 


172 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [S§ 224, 225. 


e. The genitive is often used with the ablatives causa, gratia, for 
the sake of ; ergo, because of ; and the indeclinable instar, /éke; also 
with pridié, the day before; postridié, the day after; tenus, as far 
as: as, — 

hondris causa, wth due respect (for the sake of honor). 

verbi gratia, for example. 

Gius légis ergo, on account of this law. 

ecus instar montis (Ain. ii. 15), @ horse like (the image of) a mountain. 

laterum tenus (/En. x. 210), as far as the sides. 


Il. DATIVE. 


Notre. — The Dative seems to be closely akin to the Locative (cf. ofkou, 
at home, with otk, to a house), and must have had the primary meaning of 
to or towards. But this local meaning appears in Latin only in the poets 
(§ 225. 4. 3) and in some adverbial forms (as e6, illd, ¢#zther). 


The uses of the Dative, arranged practically, are the following : — 


1. AS INDIRECT OBJECT “f 1. With Transitives (§ 225). 
(general use) : | 2. With Intransitives (§§ 226-28, 230). 
’ (1. Of Possession (with esse) (§ 231). 
2. Of Agency (with Gerundive) (§ 232). 
3- Of Purpose or End (predicate use) (§ 233). 
4. Of Fitness, etc. (with Adjectives) (§ 234). 
5. Of Reference (dativus commod?)(§§ 235, 236). 


2. Special or Idiomatic 
Uses : 


224. (RULE 21.) The Dative is used of the object z- 
directly affected by an action. 

This is called the Indirect Object (§ 177). It is usually denoted 
in English by the Objective with fo or for. Thus, — 


dat librum puer6, he gives a book to the boy. 
cédite tempori, yzeld to the occasion. 
provincia Cicerdni obtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicero. 


1. Indirect Object with Transitives. 


225. The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accu- 


sative of the Direct may be used with.amyetransitive verb 
whose meaning allows (see § 177) : as, — 


d6 tibi librum, 7 g7ve you a book. 
illud tibi affirmd (Fam. i. 7, 5), this 7 assure you. 


¥ 


§ 225.] INDIRECT OBJECT WITH TRANSITIVES. 173 


a. Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use (§ 177. 
note). These take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the 
Dative alone : as,— 


hanc peciiniam tibi créd6, 7 trust this money to you. [Transitive.] 
in hac ré tibi créd6, 7 trust you in this. [Intransitive.] 


6. Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction be- 
tween the Dative of the Indirect Object and the Accusative of the 
End of Motion (§ 258. 4). Thus, — 


1. Some verbs take the Accusative (with or without a preposition), 
instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of motion prevails 
(§ 258) > as, — 
litterads quas ad Pompéium scripsi (Att. iii. 9), the letter which I have 
written [and sent] to Pompey. [Cf. non quo haberem quod tibi 
scriberem (Att. iv. 4), zot that [ had anything to write to you.] 

litterae extempl6 Romam scriptae (Liv. xli. 16), @ letter was immediately 
written [and sent] to Rome. 

hostés in fugam dat (B. G. v. 51), Ae puts the enemy to flight. [Cf. ut 

mé dem fugae (Att. viii. 23), 20 take to flight.] 


2. On the other hand, many verbs usually followed by the Accu- 
sative with ad or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion is 
merged in some other idea : as, — 


nec quicquam quod non mihi Caesar détulerit (Fam. iv. 13), awd nothing 
which Cesar did not communicate to me. 

eum librum tibi misi (id. vii. 19), Z sent you that book. 

curés ut mihi vehantur (id. viii. 4), take care that they be conveyed to me. 

cum alius alii subsidium ferrent (B. G. ii. 26), while one lent aid to 
another. 


3. In poetry the End of Motion is often expressed by the dative 
(see § 258. note I). 

c. For the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing 
after verbs of ¢hreatening and the like, see § 227. f. 

d. Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and the 
Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative of 
the person and the Ablative of the thing : as, — 


donat coronas suis, he presents wreaths to his men; or, 

donat suds cordnis, he presents his men with wreaths. 

aram sanguine adspergere (N. D. iii. 88), to sprinkle the altar with blood. 
arae sanguinem adspergere, to sprinkle blood upon the altar. 


er ae CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 226. 


Such are don6d, impertio, indud, exud, adspergd, insperg6, cir- 
cumdo, circumfundo, prohibeo, interclido, and in poetry accing6, 
implico, and similar verbs. 


NOTE 1. — Interdicé, fordid, takes either (1) the dative of the person and 
the accusative of the thing, or (2) the dative of the person and the ablative 
of the thing: as,— _ 

interdixit histridjnibus scaenam (Suet. Dom. 7), Ze forbade the actors [to 

appear on] ¢he stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors). [Cf. in- 
terdictum est mare Antiati popul6 (Liv. viii. 14), the sea was forbidden 
to the people of Antium.| 

aqua et igni alicui interdicere, to forbid the use of fire and water. 


NOTE 2.— The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many 
verbs of preventing, protecting, and the like, which usually take the Accu- 
sative and Ablative. Intercliidd and arced sometimes take the Dative and 
Accusative, even in prose : as, — 

hisce omnis aditis ad Sullam intercliidere (Rosc. Am. 110), to shut 

these men off from all access to Sulla (close to them every approach). 
[Cf. uti frimentd commeatique Caesarem intercliideret (B. G. i. 48), 
to shut Cesar off from grain and supplies.] 

hunc (oestrum) arcébis pecori (Georg. iii. 154), vou shall keep this away 

Srom the flock. (Cf. illum arcuit Gallia (Phil. v. 37), Ze excluded him 
Srom Gaul.) — 
sdlstitium pecori défendite (Ecl. vii. 47), eep the summer heat from the 


flock. 


é. Verbs which in the active voice take the accusative and dative 
retain the dative when used in the passive : as, — 


haec nobis niintiantur, these things are told us. [Active: haec [quidam] 
nobis nintiat. | 

Crass6 divitiae non invidentur, Crassus is not envied for his wealth. 
[Active : Crass6 divitias non invident. } 

decem talenta oppidanis imperantur, zex talents are exacted of the towns- 
people. [Active : imperat oppidanis decem talenta. | 


2. Indirect Object with Intransitives. 


226. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used 
with any Intransitive verb wh eaning allows : as, — 
etl 
cédant arma togae (Phil. ii. 20), /et arms give place to the gown. 


Caesari respondet, he replies to Cesar. 
Caesari respondétur, Cesar is replied to (see § 230). 


§ 227.] INDIRECT OBJECT WITH INTRANSITIVES. 175 4 


crédimus nuntio, we believe the messenger. 

nintid créditur, the messenger is believed. 

respondi maximis criminibus (Phil. ii. 36), 7 have answered the heaviest 
charges. 


Norte 1.—Intransitive verbs have no Direct Object. The Indirect 
Object, therefore, in these cases stands alone (but cf. § 225. a). 
NOTE 2. — Cédo, yield, sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along 
with the Dative of the person: as, — 
cédere alicui posséssi6ne hortdrum (Mil. 75), fo give up to one the pos- 
session of a garden. 


a. Many phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or a 
copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a kind 
of indirect object (cf. § 235): as, — : 

auctor esse alicui, to advise or instigate one (cf. persuades). 

quis huic rei testis est (Quinc. 37), who testifies (is witness) to this fact ? 

is finis populatidnibus fuit (Liv. ii. 30), ¢is put an end to the raids. 


4. The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a 
sense approaching that of the genitive (cf. §§ 227. d, 235. a): as, — 


légatus Caesari, a lieutenant to Cesar (i.e. a man assigned to Cesar). 
hérés fratri sud, 47s brother's heir (heir to his brother). 
ministri sceleribus, agents of crime. 


Nore. — The cases in a and 6 differ from the constructions of § 227, 
note 2, and § 235 in that the dative is more closely connected in idea with 
some single word to which it serves as an indirect object. 


3. Dative with Special Verbs. 


Many verbs of apparently transitive meaning in English corre- 
spond to verbs intransitive in Latin. Thus, — 


227. (RULE 22.) Most verbs signifying to favor, help, 
please, trust, and their contraries ; also to bclicve, persue persuade, 


command, 0behy Serve, LeSisbéiti-dliceaten-paidal and 


spare, take the dative : as, — 


ciir mihi invidés, why do you envy me ? 

mihi parcit atque ignOscit, Ze spares and pardons me. 
ignOsce patrio doldri (Liv. iii. 48), excuse a father’s grief. 
non parcam operae (Fam. xiii. 27), / w7// spare no pains. 
sic mihi persuasi (Cat. M. 78), so 7 have persuaded myself. 


z 176 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 227. 


Nore. 1.— In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive mean- 
ing. Thus: invidére, fo exvy, was originally zo look askance at one. 
NOTE 2.— Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely 
like verbs of similar meaning. Such are — 
praesto esse, de on hand (cf. adesse). 
morem gerere, humor (cf. morigerari). 
gratum facere, do a favor (cf. gratificari). 
dict6 audiéns esse, be obedient (cf. oboedire). 
cui fidem habébat (B. G. i. 19), i whom he had confidence (cf. confidebat). 
So, also, many phrases where no corresponding verb exists. Such 
are — 
bene (male, pulchré, aegré, etc.) esse, to de well (il, etc.) off 
initriam facere, do injustice to. 
diem dicere, bring to trial (name a day for, etc.). 
agere gratias, fo express one’s thanks. 
habére gratiam, zo feel thankful. 
referre gratiam, fo repay a favor. 
opus esse, de necessary. 
damnum dare, inflict an injury. 
acceptum (expénsum) ferre (esse), ¢o credit (charge). 
honorem habére, Zo pay honor to. 
a. Some verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accu- 
sative. 
Such are iuv6, adiuv6, ie/p ; laedd, inxjure ; iubed, order ; déficis, 
fail; délecto, lease. Thus, — 
hic pulvis oculum meum laedit, this dust hurts my eye. [Cf. multa oculis 
nocent, many things are injurious to the eyes.| 
&. Some verbs are used ¢vansitively with the Accusative or zztransi- 
tively with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning. 
Such are adilor (generally accusative), aemulor (rarely dative), 
comitor, déspér6, praestdlor, medeor, medicor. Thus, — 


adilatus est Antonio (Nep. Att. 8), Ze flattered Antony. 

adilari Nerdnem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 19), 40 flatter Nero. 

c. Some verbs are used ¢ransitively with the Accusative or z#- 
transitively with the Dative with a.difference of meaning. 

parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 85), they consult for a part of the citizens. 

cum té consuluissem (Fam. xi. 29), when 7 had consulted you. 

metuéns pueris (Plaut. Am. 1113), awzxious for the children. 

nec metuunt deds (Ter. Hec. 772), they fear not even the gods. 

prospicite patriae (Cat. iv. 3), Aave regard for the State. 

prospicere sédem senectiiti (Liv. iv. 49), Zo provide a habitation for old age. 


§ 227.] DATIVE WITH SPECIAL VERBS. 17 id 


Nore. — Fidé and cénfid6, ¢rust, take the Dative or the Ablative : as, — 

legidnis decimae cui quam maximé confidébat (B. G. i. 42), of the tenth 
legion, in which he had the utmost confidence. 

multum natira loci confidébant (B. G. iii. 9), they had great confidence in 
the strength of their position (the nature of the place). 


d@. Some verbal nouns —as insidiae, ambush; invidia, envy — |, 
take the dative like the verbs from which they are derived : as, — 
nvidia consuli (Sall.), 2//-w7// against the consul (cf. invided). 
obtemperatis légibus (Leg. 42), obedience to the laws (cf. obtemperd). 
sibi ipsi responsid (De Or. iii. 207), az answer to himself (cf. responded). 
Norte. — In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal 
force of the noun and not on any complex idea (cf. § 226. a and 4). 


é. The Dative is also used — 
1. With the impersonals libet (lubet), z¢ Aleases ; licet, zt is al 
lowed: as, — 


quod mihi maximé lubet (Fam. i. 8), what most pleases me. 

quasi tibi non licéret (Fam. vi. 8), as if you were not permitted. 

2. With verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male: as, — 

mihi ipse numquam satisfacid (Fam. i. 1), 7 never satisfy myself. 

optims vird maledicere (Deiot. 28), fo speak ill of a most excellent man. 

pulchrum est benefacere reipiblicae (Sall. Cat. 3), eis @ glorious thing 

to benefit the State. ; 

Note. — These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were appar- 
ently felt as such by the Romans. Thus, — 

satis officid me, satis ill6rum voluntati qui 4 mé hic petivérunt factum. 

esse arbitrabor (Verr. v. 130), that enough has been done for, etc. 

3. With the following : gratificor, gratulor, haered (rarely), niib6, 
permitto, plaudd, probod, studed, supplicd, excell6: as, — 

haerentem capiti cor6nam (Hor. S.i. 10, 49), @ wreath clinging to the head. 

Pompéid sé gratificari putant (Fam. i. 1), they suppose they are doing 

Pompey a service. 

NOTE. — Misce6 and iung6 sometimes take the dative (see § 248. a. Rem.). 
Haered usually takes the ablative, with or without in. 

J. Many verbs ordinarily intransitive often have an Accusative of 
the direct object with the Dative of the indirect (cf. § 225.a@): as, — 

cui cum réx crucem minitarétur (Tusc. i. 102), when the king threatened 

him with the cross. 
imperat oppidanis decem talenta, he exacts of the townspeople ten talents. 


Phiys CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 228. 


4. Dative with Compounds. 


228. (RULE 23.) Most verbs compounded with ad, 
ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super, and some 
with circum, take the dative of the indirect object : as, — 


neque enim adsentior eis (Lael. 13), for 7 do not agree with them. 

tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9, 21), #¢ 7s a point of skill to yield 
to the weather. 

omnibus negoétiis non interfuit sdlum sed praefuit (id. i. 6), Ae not only 
had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them. 

quantum natiira hominis pecudibus antecédit (Off. i..105),s0 far as man’s 
nature is superior to brutes. 


NorTE 1.— In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but 
on the compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence, if the acquired 
meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction of the 
simple verb remains or some different construction arises. Thus, in con- 
vocat suds, ke calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so modified 
as to make an indirect object appropriate. So, hominem interficere, to make 
way with a man (kill him). But in praeficere imperatorem belld, fo put a 
man as commander-in-chief in charge of a war, the meaning is suited to an 
indirect object (see a and ¢, and § 237. 2). 

NoTeE 2.— Some of these verbs being originally transitive take also a 
direct object: as, né offeramus nds periculis (Off. i. 83), that we may not 
expose ourselves to perils. 


a. Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, have 
acquired a transitive meaning, and take the accusative : as, — 


nos oppiignat (Fam. i. 1), Ze opposes us. 
minus obire (Lael. 7), fo attend to a duty. 


é. The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take 
the dative : as, — 
si ille obvius ei futiirus non erat (Mil. 47), if Ae was not intending to get 
in his way. 
mihi obviam vénisti (Fam. ii. 16, 3), you came to meet me. 
c. When Place or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs of 
§ 228 regularly take a noun with a preposition, not the dative : as, — 
in visceribus inhaerére (Tusc. iv. 24), 7¢ remains fixed in the vitals. 
homini coniiinctd mécum (Tull. 4), 20 @ man united to me. 
cum hdc concurrit ipse Eumenés (Nep. Eum. 4, 1), with him Eumenes 
himself engages in combat (runs together). 


§§ 229, 230.] DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS. 179 


quae 4 céterarum gentium more dissentiunt (Font. 30), which differ 
Srom the custom of all other nations. 

obicitur contra istorum impetiis Macedonia (Font. 44), Macedonia is set 
to withstand their attacks. [Cf. si quis vébis error obiectus (Czc. 
5), ef any mistake has been caused you.] 

in segetem flamma incidit (Ain. ii. 304), the fire falls upon the standing corn. 


Nore. — As usage varies, the dictionary must be consulted for each verb. 


is 229. (RULE 24.) Many verbs of taking away and the 


J like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the 
| Ablative of Separation (§ 243): as, — ’ 
“ — mulieri anulum détraxit, he took a ring from the woman. 
bona mihi abstulisti, you have robbed me of my gains. 
a. The distinct idea of motion, — and, in general, names of ¢hings, 
—require the ablative with a preposition (§ 258.a@): as, — 
illum ex periculé Eripuit (B.G. iv. 12), he dragged him out of danger. 


6. Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing 
with a preposition are both used with the same verb: as, — 

victoriam éripi sibi ¢ manibus, that victory shank be wrested from his 

hands (cf. § 243. 4). 

c. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which 
would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So, especially, ‘with 
verbs of contending (§ 248.6): as, — 

placiténe etiam piignabis amori (Ain. iv. 38), will you struggle even 

against a love that pleases you? 

tibi certat (Ecl. v. 8), vies with you. [técum.] 

solstitium pecori défendite (Ecl. vii. 47), keep the summer heat from the 

Jiock. [& pecore.] 
lateri abdidit Ensem (Ain. ii. 553), duried the sword in his side. [in 
latere, § 260. a.] 
[For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see § 225. 4. 3.] 


230. (RULE 25.) The passive of intransitive verbs that 
govern the dative can be used only zmpersonally (§ 146. 
d). The dative is retained (cf. § 225. e). 








cui parci potuit (Liv. xxi. 14), who could be spared ? 
non modo non invidétur illi aetati vérum etiam favétur (Off. ii. 45), chaz 
age (youth) zs not only not envied, but is even favored. 


180 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [$$ 231, 232. 


5. Dative of Possession. 


231. (RULE 26.) The Dative is used with esse and 
similar words to denote Possession : as, — 


homini cum ded similitiidd est, man has a likeness to God (there is, etc.). 
est mihi domi pater (Ecl. iii. 33), 7 Aave a father at home. 


REMARK. — The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the 
possessor; the Dative, the fact of possession: as, liber est meus, the book is 
mine (and no one’s else); est mihi liber, 7 Aave a 600k (among other things). 
The latter is the usual form to denote simple Jossession, since habed, have, 
generally signifies 4o/d, often with some secondary meaning : as, — 

legisnem quam sécum habébat (B. G. i. 8), the legion which he kept with 

him. 

domitas habére libidinés, 40 keep the passions under control. 


a. Compounds of esse take the dative (except abesse and posse): 
as, — 
deest mihi peciinia, 7 Jack money. 
quid mihi proderit? 2% what will it help me (what will it profit me)? 
é. After ndmen est, and similar expressions, the name is usually 
in the dative by a kind of apposition with the Jerson: as, — 
cui Africind fuit cOgndmen (Liv. xxv. 2), whose (to whom) surname was 
Africanus. 
c. The name may also be in apposition with nOmen; or in later 
Latin in the genitive (cf. § 214. f): as, — 
cui nomen Arethiisa (Verr. iv. 118), [a fount] called Arethusa (to which 
is the name Arethusa). 


puero nomen est Marcus (Marci), the boy’s name is Marcus (to the 
boy, etc.). : 


6. Dative of the Agent. 


232. (RULE 27.) The Dative of the Agent is used 
with the gerundiye, to denote the person on whom the 
necessity rests : as, — 


haec vobis provincia est défendenda (Man. 14), ¢his province ts for you to 
defend (to be defended by you). 

mihi est pignandum, / have to fight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me; 
compare mihi est liber, 7 Aave a book, § 231. Rem.). 


§ 233-] DATIVE OF THE AGENT. 181 


Norte. — This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second 
or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (§ 113. d.1). But when a dative is 
expressed governed by the verb itself, and rarely at other times, the agent 
is denoted by the Ablative with ab (§ 246) to avoid ambiguity: as, — 
quibus est 4 vobis coOnsulendum (Manil. 6), for whom you must consult 
(for whom it must be consulted by you). 

(Cf. isti principés et sibi et céteris populi R6mani iiniversi auctoritati 
parendum esse fateantur (id. 64), /et these leading men admit that 
both by them and by everybody else the authority of the Roman people 
as a whole must be obeyed. [Here there could be no ambiguity. ]) 


a. The dative of the agent is common after perfect participles | 
(especially when used in an adjective sense), but rare after other 
parts of the verb: as, — 

mihi déliberatum et cOnstitiitum est (Rull. i. 25), 7 have deliberated and 

resolved (it has been deliberated by me). 

mihi rés tdta provisa est (Verr. iv. 91), the matter has been fully pro- 

vided for by me. 

6. The dative of the agent is used by the poets and later writers 
with almost any passive verb: as, — 

neque cernitur alli (Ain. i. 440), zor zs seen by any. 

félix est dicta sordri (Ov. Fast. iii. 597), ske was called happy by her sister. 

c. The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used) 
with videor, seem: as, — 

vidétur mihi, z¢ seems (or seems good) to me. 

dis aliter visum [est] (Ain. ii. 428), z¢ seemed otherwise.to the gods. 

Note. — The verb probare, approve (originally a mercantile word), takes 
a Dative of Reference (§ 235), which has become so firmly attached that it 
is retained with the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent : as, — 

haec sententia et illi et ndbis probabatur (Fam. i. 7, 5), this view met 

both his approval and mine (was made acceptable to, etc.). 

mihi €gregié probata est oratid tua (Tusc. iv. 8), your discourse was 

very satisfactory to me. 


7. Dative of the Purpose or End. 


233. (RULE 28.) The Dative is used to denote the 
Purpose or End. 


* 
This use of the dative, once apparently general, remains in only 
a few constructions. Thus, — 


182 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 234. 


a. The dative of an abstract noun is used to show that for which 
a thing serves or which it accomplishes (Dative of Service), often 
with another dative of the person or thing affected : as, — 
magno isui nostris fuit (B.G. iv. 25), 7 was of great service to our men 
(for great use). 
' tertiam aciem nostris subsidid misit (id. i. §2), he sent the third line asa 
relief to our men. 
omnia deerant quae ad reficiendas navés erant dsui (id. iv. 29), a// things 
were wanting which were of use for repairing the ships. 


Nore. — The word friigi used as an adjective is a dative of this kind: as, — 
cégis mé dicere inimicum friigi, you compel me to call my enemy honest. 
(Cf. erd friigi bonae (Plaut. Pseud. 468), 7 will be good for something.) 
6. The Dative of concrete nouns is used to express purpose in 

prose in a few military expressions, and freely in poetry : as, — 
teceptul canere, fo sound a retreat. 

locum castris capere, Zo select a site for a camp, 

a optavit locum régn6 (Ain. iii. 109), Ae chose a place for a kingdom. 


Norte. — The construction of purpose or end is also found in the 
ative of the Gerundive (§ 299. 4) and after Adjectives (§ 234). 


8. Dative with Adjectives. 


234. (RULE 29.) The dative is used with adjectives, 
to denote that to which the given quality ts directed, for 
which tt exists, or towards which it tends. 


a. The dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) of fz 
ness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites: as,— 


nihil est tam natirae aptum (Lzl. 17), zothing is so fitted to nature. 

nihil difficile amanti puto (Or. 33), 7 chink nothing hard to a lover. 

rébus ipsis par et aequalis Oratid (id. 123), a speech equal and level with 
the subject. — 

castris iddneum locum déligit (B. G. i. 49), a suttable place for a camp. 

congruenter natirae (Fin. iii. 26), in harmony with nature. 


6. Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with 
ad to denote the purpose or end; but regularly the Dative of Jer- 
SONS: as, — 

aptus ad rem militarem, /# for a soldier's duty. . 

locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 53), @ place filter for lying in wait. 

nobis iitile est ad hanc rem, 7¢ is of use to us for this thing. 


§ 235.] DATIVE OF REFERENCE. 183 


c. Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the 
Accusative with in or erga : as, — 

comis in uxGrem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2, 133), Aiud to his wife. 

divina bonitas erga hominés (N. D. ii. 60), the divine goodness towards men. 

d@. Some adjectives of Likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few 
others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive 
Genitive. Thus, — 

. fuit hdc quondam proprium populi Rémani (Manil. 32), his was once the 
peculiar characteristic of the Roman people. 

1. The Genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they 
are used wholly or approximately as nouns. Thus, — 

amicus Ciceroni, friendly to Cicero. But, Cicerdnis amicus, a friend of 

Cicero; and even Ciceronis amicissimus, a very great friend of Cicero. 
hi erant affinés istius (Verr. iv. 14), these were this man’s fellows. 

2. After similis, /ike, the genitive is more common in early writers. 
Cicero uses the genitive of ving objects, and either the genitive or 
dative of things: as, — 

domini similis es (Ter.) you’re like your master (your master’s like). 

simia quam similis turpissima bestia nobis (N. D. i. 97, quoted from 

Enn.), how like us is that wretched beast the ape! 

si enim hoc illi simile sit, est illud huic (N. D.i. 90), for if this is like 

that, that is like this. 

é. The adjectives propior, proximus sometimes, and the adverbs 
propius, proximé more commonly, take the accusative, as if preposi- 
tions, like prope (see § 261. a). 

propius periculum (Liv. xxi. 1), zearer to danger. 

proximé deds accéssit Clodius (Mil. 59), Clodius has come very near 

the gods. 

proximus mare dceanum (B. G. iii. 7), zearest the ocean. 


g. Dative of Reference. 


235. (RULE 30.) The Dative is often required not 
by any particular word, but by the general meaning the 
sentence (dative of reference): as, — 

laudavit mihi fratrem, 4e praised my brother (out of regard for me; lau- 

davit fratrem meum would imply no such motive). 

meritds mactavit hondrés, taurum Neptind, taurum tibi, pulcher Apollé ~y 


(AEn. iii. 118), he offered the sacrifices due, a bull to Neptune, a bull to [ 
thee, beautiful Apollo. Sind 











184 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 236. 


NoTeE.— The dative in this construction is often called the Dative of 

Advantage or Disadvantage (dativus commodi aut incommod), as denoting 

|e person or thing for whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is 
performed. 


a. The dative of reference is often used to qualify a whole idea, 
instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word : as, — 
iter Poenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. Maj. 75), to block the 
march of the Carthaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., 
for the disadvantage of, etc.). 


6. The dative is used of the person from whose point of view a 
situation or direction is defined. 

This construction answers to the English as you go in, and the 
like. The person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in 
the plural: as, — 

oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro (B.C. iii. 80), the first 

town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.). 
est urbe égressis tumulus (Ain. ii. 713), there is, as you come out of the 
city, a mound (to those having come out). 


c. The dative is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by noléns, 
voléns, participles of nolo, vol6, or by some similar word: as, — 
ut quibusque bellum invitis aut cupientibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59), as each 
might receive the war reluctantly or gladly. 
@. The dative is used idiomatically without any verb in colloquial 
questions and exclamations : as, — ~ 
quo mihi fortiinam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune? 


unde mihi lapidem (Hor. Sat. ii. 7. 116), where can I get a stone? 


;e. The dative is sometimes used after Interjections : as, — 


| 
vae victis, woe to the conquered. 


em tibi, there, take that (there, for you)! [Cf. § 236.] 
hei mihi, ah, me! 
to. Ethical Dative. 
236. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to 
show a certain interest felt by the person indicated :! as, — 


1 Compare “I’ll rhyme you so eight years together.” — 4s You Like /t. 


§ 237-] ACCUSATIVE. 185 


quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor.), what is my friend Celsus doing ? 

suo sibi servit patri (Plaut. Capt. Prol.), he serves his own father. 

This construction is called the Ethical Dative (dativus éthicus). 
It is really only a special case of the dative of reference. 


REMARK.—To express FOR, meaning instead of, in defence of, in behalf 
of, the ablative with pré must be used : as, — 


pro patria mori (Hor. Od. iii. 2), to die for one’s country. 


Ill. ACCUSATIVE. 


The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows : 


1. Directly affected by the Action (§ 237). 
Thing produced (§ 237). 


1. PRIMARY OBJECT: { 
Cognate Accusative (§ 238). 


2. Effect of the Action} 


1. Predicate Accusative (of Naming, etc.) (§ 239. a). 
2. Of Asking or Teaching (§ 239. c). 
3. Of Concealing (§ 239. 2). 


1. Adverbial (§ 240. a, 0). 

2. Of Specification (Greek Accusative) (§ 240. c). 
3. IpiomaTic Users: < 3. Of Extent and Duration (§ 240. e). 
4 
5 


2. Two Accusarivis:4 


. Of Exclamation (§ 240. ¢@). 
. Subject of Infinitive (§ 240./). 


1. Direct Object. 


237. (RULE 31.) The Direct Object of a transitive 
verb is put in the Accusative (§.177). . 


The accusative of the Direct Object denotes (a2) that which is 
directly affected, or (6) that which is caused or produced by the 
action of the verb: as, — Ese: 


(a) Briitus Caesarem interfécit, Brutus killed Cesar. 
(4) aedem facere, 4o make a temple. [Compare proelium pignare, to fight 
a battle, § 238.) 


Nore. — There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be 
distinguished from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object 
(expressed or implied) are called transitive, but many of these are often 
used intransitively or absolutely. Thus timed, 7 fear, is transitive in the 
sentence inimicum timed, 7 fear my enemy, but intransitive (absolute) in noli 
timére, don’t be afraid. 


186 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [$ 237. 


a. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its 
subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative (§ 177. @): as, — 

Briitus Caesarem interfécit, Brutus killed Cesar. 

Caesar 4 Briitd interfectus est, Cesar was killed by Brutus. 

domum aedificat, he builds a house. 

domus aedificatur, the house is building (being built). 


6. Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing /ee/ing, take an 
accusative, and may be used in the passive: as, — 
meum casum lictumque doluérunt (Sest. 145), they grieved [at] my 
calamity and sorrow. 
si non Acrisium risissent Itippiter et Venus (Hor. O. iii. 16. 5), 7f Jupiter 
and Venus had not laughed [at] Acrisius. 
¢. Verbs of taste, smell, and the like take an accusative of the 
quality : as, — 
vinum redoléns (Cic.), smelling [of] wine. 
herbam mella sapiunt (Plin.), the honey tastes [of] grass. * 
Note. — These are properly Cognate Accusatives (§ 238). 


d. Verbs of motion, compounds of circum and trans, and a few 
others, often become transitive, and take the accusative (cf. § 228.a): 
as, — . 

consulatum ineunt (Liv. ii. 28), they enter upon the consulship. 

si insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if he should go to the island. 

transire fliimen (id. ii. 23), to cross the river (cf. § 239. 4). 

civés qui circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 21), the citizens who stand about the 

senate. 
.é@. The accusative is used with the impersonals decet, délectat, 
iuvat, oportet, fallit, fugit, praeterit: as, — 

té non praeterit (Fam. i. 8), it does not escape your notice. 

mé pedibus délectat claudere verba (Hor. Sat. ii. 1. 28), my delight is (it 

pleases me) ¢o arrange words in measure. 

nisi mé fallit, w#/ess J am mistaken (unless it deceives me). 

So after latet in poetry and post-classical prose: as, — 

latet plérdsque (Plin. ii. 82), zt 2s unknown to most persons. 

NOTE 3.— Many verbs usually intransitive are sometimes used tran- 
sitively from a similarity of meaning with other verbs that regularly take 
the accusative : as, — 

multa geméns igndminiam (Georg. iii. 226), groaning much at the dis- 

grace. [Cf. doled, § 237. 4.] 
festinare fugam (En. iv. 575), to hasten their flight. [Cf. accelerd.] 


§ 238.) COGNATE ACCUSATIVE. 187 


jf: In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived 
from transitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the 
accusative: as, — 
quid tibi hance tactio est (Plaut. Poen. 1308), what business have you to 
touch her? (Cf. tango.] 
mirabundi bestiam (App. Met. iv. rh full of wonder at the creature.' 
{Cf. miror. ] : 
. g. In early usage the impersonal gerundive with esse governs the 
accusative (§ 294. c): as, — 
quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. Maj. 6), which (road) we must enter 
- upon. [Here Cicero purposely uses an archaic construction. ] 
h. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absolutely (§ 237. 
note), having their natural object in the ablative with dé: as, — 
priusquam Pomponius dé Gius advent cogndsceret (B. C. iii. 101), defore 
Pomponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. ius adventi cognitd, Ais 


arrival being discovered.| 


z. For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see § 221. 6. 


2. Cognate Accusative. 


238. (RULE 32.) A neuter verb often takes the accusa- 
tive of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an 
adjective or in some other manner. 

This construction is called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative 
of Kindred Signification. Thus, — 


tertiam iam aetatem hominum vivébat (Cat. Maj. 31), Ze was now living 
the third generation of men. 
coire societatem, fo [go together and] form an alliance. 


a. The Cognate Accusative is often loosely used by the poets: as,— 


saltare Cyclépa (Hor. Sat. i. 5. 63), to dance the Cyclops (represent in 
dancing). 

Amaryllida resonare (Ecl. i. 5), to reécho [the name of] Amaryliis. 

intonuit laevum (AEn. ii. 693), z¢ thundered on the left. 


6. A neuter pronoun or colorless noun or adjective is very common 
as 5 cognate accusative (cf. §§ 148. ; @)- us, — 





“Empedoclés multa alia peccat (N. D. i. 29), Zmpedocles commits many 
other slips. 


188 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 239. 


quid. mé ista laedunt (Agr. ii. 32), what harm do those things do me? 
hoc té moned, / give you this warning (cf. note, below). 
id laetor, / rejoice at this (cf. note, below). 


So in many common phrases: as, — 


si quid ille sé velit (B. G. i. 34), ¢f Ae should want anything of him (if he 
should want him in anything). 

numquid mé vis, cax / do anything more for you? (there is nothing you 
want of me, is there?) [A common form of leave-taking.] 

id valet, zt amounts to this. 


Nore. — In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would be 
in some other construction: as, — 
bonis rébus laetari, ¢o rejoice at prosperity. [Also: in, dé, or ex.] 


dé testamentd moné€re, to remind one of the will. [| Later: genitive, §219. ¢.] 


c. A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from a 
forcing of their meaning. Such expressions are — e 


ferire foedus, fo strike a treaty (i.e. to sanction by striking down a victim). 

vincere itidicium (sp6nsidnem, rem, hOc), to prevail on a trial, etc. [As 
if the case were a difficulty to overcome ; cf. vincere iter, Ain. vi. 688.] 

terram navigare (Fin. ii. 112), to sail over the land. [Perhaps quoted 
from a poet.] 

aequor navigare, fo sail the sea. [As if it were transire, § 237. d.] 

maria aspera itird (Ain. vi. 351), 7 swear by the rough seas. [The accusa- 
tive with verbs of swearing is chiefly poetic. ] 


3. Two Accusatives. 


239. Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in 
addition to their Direct Object. 

This second accusative is either (1) a Rredtcete Accusa- 
tive or (2) a Secondary Object. 


a. Predicate Accusative. 


1. An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same 
person or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposi- 
tion with it, is called a Predicate Accusative (cf. § 18 5. 
head-note). 


§ 239.] SECONDARY OBJECT. 189 


a. (RULE 33.) Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, 
esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative : 
ae ; 

' Cicer6nem consulem creare, fo elect Cicero consul. 
mé augurem nominaverunt (Phil. ii. 4), they nominated me for augur. 


hominem prae sé néminem putavit (Cic.), Ze thought nobody a man in, 
comparison with himself. 





NoTE 1.— The predicate accusative may be an adjective: as, — 


hominés ex feris et immanibus mités reddidit et mansuétds (Inv. i. 2), 
has made men from wild and barbarous [creatures] gentle and mild. 


Note 2.—JIn changing from the active voice to the passive, the pred- 
icate accusative becomes predicate nominative (§ 185): as, — 


réx ab suis appellatur (B. G. vii. 4), he zs called king by his [subjects]. 


b. Secondary Object. 
2. (RULE 34.) The Accusative of the Secondary Object 
is used (along with the direct object) to denote something 
more remotely affected by the action of the verb. 


6. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take 
a Secondary Object, originally governed by the preposition : as, — 





Caesar Gérmanos flimen traicit (B. C. i. 83), Cesar throws the Germans 
across the river. 


NoTE 1.— But with these verbs the preposition is more commonly 
repeated, or sometimes the ablative is used : as, — 


donec rés suas trans Halyn flimen traicerent (Liv. xxxviii. 25), “// they 
should get their possessions across the river Halys. 

(exercitus) Padé traiectus Cremonam (Liv. xxi. 56), the army was con- 
veyed across the Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, § 258. g). 

NOTE 2. — The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb : 

as, -~ ‘ 

Belgae Rhénum traducti sunt (B. G. ii. 4), the Belgians were led over the 

Rhine. 


NoTE 3.— Sometimes the Secondary Object appears to become the 
subject of a passive verb; but this comes from a change of meaning, and 
the object is really Direct. See the Remark. 


REMARK. — The double construction indicated in 4 is possible only when 
the force of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly 
felt in the compound, the verb governing the Direct, and the preposition 
the Secondary object. 


190 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 230. 


But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form 
a transitive verb of simple meaning. So traicio comes to mean either (1) 
to pierce (anybody) [dy hurling] or (2) ¢o cross (a river, etc.) : as, — 


(1) gladis hominem traiécit, he pierced the man with a sword. [Here iacid 
has lost all transitive force, and serves simply to give the force of a 
verb to the meaning of trans, and to tell the mazmer of the act.] 

(2) Rhodanum traiécit, he crossed the Rhone. [Here iacid has become simply 
a verb of motion, and traicid is hardly distinguishable from transed.] 


In these examples hominem and Rhodanum, which would be secondary 
objects if traiécit were used in its primary signification, have become the 
direct objects. Hence in the passive construction they become the sub- 
jects and are put in the nominative. Thus, — 

hom6 traiectus est gladi6, the man was pierced with a sword. 

Rhodanus trdiectus est, the Rhone was crossed. 


The poetical traiectus lora (Ain. ii. 273), pierced with thongs, comes from a 
mixture of two constructions : — 

(1) eum traiécit lora, he rove thongs through him,} and 

(2) eum traiécit loris, he pierced him with thongs. 

In putting the sentence into a passive form, the direct object of the former 


(léra) is irregularly kept, and the direct object of the latter (eum) is made 
the subject. 


¢. (RULE 35.) Verbs of asking and teaching may take two accu- 
satives, one of the Person (direct object), and the other of the Thing 
(secondary object): as, — 

mé sententiam rogavit, he asked me my opinion. 

docére puerés elementa, Zo teach children their A B C’s. 

NoTE 1.— Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a 


preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, petd (ab), quaerd (ex, 
ab, dé) often postuld (ab), and occasionally others : as, — 


pacem ab RomAnis petiérunt (B. G. ii. 13), they sought peace from the 
Romans. 
NorTE. 2.— With the passive of verbs of asking or teaching, the Jerson 
or the ¢hing may be used as subject : as, — 
Caesar sententiam rogatus est, Cesar was asked his opinion. 
REMARK. — The accusative of the ¢zmg may be retained with the 


passive of rogd, and of verbs of teaching, and occasionally with a few other 
_ verbs : as, — 


1 Perhaps not found in the active, but cf. traiectd fiine (Ain. v. 488). 


§ 240.] IDIOMATIC USES. IgI 


fuerant hoc rogati (Czl. 64), they had been asked this. 
Cicer6 per légatds ciincta Edoctus (Sall. Cat. 45), Cicero being informed 
of everything through the ambassadors. 


But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes 
the subject-nominative, and the person is expressed by the ablative with a 
preposition: as, — ; 
né postulantur quidem virés 4 senectiite (Cat. M. 34), strength is not 
even expected of an old man (asked from old age). — 


d. The verb c8l6, conceal, may take two accusatives, and the 
usually intransitive lated, /ze hid, an accusative of the person (cf. 
§ 237. €): as, — 

non té célavi serminem T. Ampi (Fam. ii. 16), 7 did not conceal from you 

the talk of T. Ampius. 

nec latuére doli fratrem IinGnis (Ain. i. 130), nor did the wiles of Juno 

escape the notice of her brother. 


4. Idiomatic Uses. 
240. The Accusative has the following special uses :— 


a. A neuter pronoun or adjective is used as cognate accusative 
with an adverbial force (Adverbial Accusative, cf. § 238. 6): as, — 


quid moror, why do J delay ? 

dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22. 24), sweetly speaking. 
acerba tuéns (Ain. ix. 794), looking cruelly. 

torvum clamat (id. vii. 399), Ae cries harshly. 


Notre. — This use does not differ from the cognate accusative except 
that in some cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has faded 
out so that the words are real adverbs. But no fixed line can be drawn be- 
tween these two constructions. 


6. The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases : as, — 


id temporis, at that time. 
) id {istiic).aetatis, at that age. 
id (quod) genus, of that (what) sort (perhaps originally nominative). 
meam vicem, on my part. 
| maximam partem, for the most part. 
virile secus, of the male sex (probably originally in apposition). 


| cetera, a7 other respects. 


quod si, dt (as to which) 76 
quid est quod, why is it that? 


192 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 240. 


c. The so-called synecdochical or Greek accusative is used by the 
poets to denote the part affected : as, — 


caput nectentur (Ain. v. 309), their head shall be bound (they shall be 
bound about the head). 

ardentis oculds suffecti sanguine et igni (id. ii. 210), their glaring eyes 
bloodshot and blazing with fire (suffused as to their eyes, etc.). 

niida genii (id. i. 320), dare to the knee. 


Nore. — In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be 
‘regarded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice (§ 111. @) : as, — 


initile ferrum cingitur (Ain. ii. 510), Ze girds on the useless steel. 

nodo6 sinis collécta fluentis (id. i. 320), having her flowing folds gathered 
in a knot. 

umerods insternor pelle lednis (id. ii. 722), 7 cover my shoulders with a 
lion’s skin. 


ad. The accusative is used in exclamations : as, — 


O fortiinatam rempiblicam, of, fortunate republic! [CE. O fortiinata 
mors (Phil. xiv. 31), 02, happy death! (§ 241. c).] 

mé miserum, ah, wretched me! 

én quatuor aras (Ecl. v. 65), 40, four altars ! 

pro detim fidem, good heavens (oh, protection of the gods) ! 

huncine hominem (Verr. v. 62), this man, good heavens ! 

O mé infélicem (Mil. 102), oh, unhappy me ! 


Nore. — The omission of the verb has given rise to some other idiomatic 
accusatives. Such are— 

saliitem (sc. dicit) (in letters), greeting. 

quo mihi fortiinam, of what use is fortune ? [Here no verb is thought of.] 

é. (RULE 37.) Duration of time and extent of space are expressed 
by the accusative (see §§ 256, 257). 

J. (RULE 36.) The subject of the infinitive mood is in the accusa- 


tive. This is especially frequent after + words of knowing, thinking, 
telling, and perceiving (verba sentiendi et déclarandi, see § 272). 











g. The accusative in later writers is sometimes used in apposition 
with a clause. 


h. For the accusative of the End of Motion, see § 258 ; for that 
after postridié, propior, etc., see § 261. a. 


[For the Accusative with Prepositions, see § 152. a, ¢.] 


§§ 241, 242.] VOCATIVE AND ABLATIVE. 193 


IV. VOCATIVE. 


241. The Vocative is the case of direct address: as, — 

Tiberine pater, té sancte precor (Liv. ii. 10), O, father Tiber, thee, holy 
one, [ pray. 

a. A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of the | 

imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative : as, — 


audi ti, populus Albanus (Liv. i. 24), Aear, thou people of Alba. 


6. The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used instead of the 
nominative, where the verb is in the second person : as, — 


cénsOrem trabeate saliitas (Pers. iii. 29), robed you salute the censor. 


c. The nominative may be used in exclamations (cf. § 240. d): as, — 

én dextra fidésque (Ain. iv. 597), 0, the faith and plighted word! 

d@. The word macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte 
esto (virtiite), success attend your (valor). Thus, — 

iubérem té miacte virtiite esse (Liv. ii. 12), 7 should bid you go on and 


prosper in your valor. 


Note. — As the quantity of the final e in macte is not determinable, it 
may be that the word was an adverb, as in bene est, andthe like. (See 
American Journal of Philology, Vol. I.) 


V. ABLATIVE. 


242. The Ablative is used to denote the relations ex- 
pressed in English by the prepositions FROM, IN, AT, WITH, 
BY : as, — 


liberare metii, to deliver from fear. 
caecus avaritia, blind with avarice. 
occisus gladio, slain by the sword. 


The following are the uses of the Latin Ablative, classed according to 
the original cases which have been combined in it :— 


1. Of Separation, Privation, and Want (§ 243). 

2. Of Source (participles of origin, etc.) (§ 244). 
1. ABLATIVE (/rom) :< 3. Of Cause (gaudedé, dignus, etc.) (§ 24). 

4. Of Agent (with ab after Passives) (§ 246). 

5. Of Comparison (THAN) (§ 247). 


194 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 243. 


. Of Manner, Means, and Instrument (§ 248). 
. Of Accompaniment (with cum) (§ 248. a). 
. Of Object with the Deponents itor, etc. (§ 249). 


I 
2 
2. INSTRUMENTAL ° 
: < 4. Of Degree of Difference (§ 250). 
5 
6 


ABLATIVE (with): | < Of Quality (with Adjectives) (§ 251). 


. Of Price and Exchange (§ 252). 
ee Of Specification (§ 253). 





1. Of Place where (commonly with in) (§ 254). 
3. LOCATIVE ABLA- 2. Of Idiomatic Expressions (§ 254. a). 
TIVE (27, on, at): | 3. Of Time and Circumstance (§ 256). 
4. Ablative Absolute (§ 255). 


1. Ablative of Separation. 
243. (RULE 38.) Words signifying Separation or Priya- 
tion gre followed by the ablative, with or without a prep- 
osition. 





a. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and want, 
require the ablative : as, — 

oculis se privavit (Fin. v. 87), e deprived himself of eyes. 

légibus soliitus, relieved from the obligation of laws. 

omni Gallia interdicit R6manés (B. G. i. 46), Ze (Ariovistus) dars the 

Romans from the whole of Gaul. 

voluptatibus carére (Cat. Maj. 7), ¢o lack enjoyments. 

non eged medicina (Lzl. 10), 7 want no physic. 

magno mé metii liberabis (Cat. i. 10), you will relieve me of great fear. 


6. Verbs compounded with a, ab, d&, ex, take the simple ablative 


hen used figuratively ; but when used literally to denote separation 
or motion, they usually require a preposition (see § 258). Thus, — 
conatii désistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt. 
abire magistrati, Zo /eave one’s office. 
abstinére initiria, to refrain from wrong. 
But, — aberrare 4 proposit6d (Cic.), to wander from the point. 
dé provincia décédere (Verr. ii. 49), to withdraw from one’s province. 
ex civitate excéssére (B. G. vi. 8), they departed from the state. [But cf. 
finibus suis excésserant (id. iv. 18), they had left their own territory.] 
a magno démissum nomen Iild (Ain. i. 288), a mame descended (sent 
down) from great Julus. 


Norsr.— For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, 
see § 229. 


§ 244.] ABLATIVE OF SOURCE AND MATERIAL. 195 


c. For the ablative of the actual A/ace whence in idiomatic expres- 
sions, see § 258. a, and note 2. 

da. Adjectives denoting freedom and want take the ablative : as, — 

urbs niida praesidio (Att. vii. 13), the city naked of defence. 

imminis militia (Liv. i. 43), free of military service. 

plébs orba tribiinis (Leg. iii. 9), the people deprived of tribunes. 


Nore. — Some adjectives of want take the genitive (see § 218. a). 
. é. (RULE 39.) Opus and tsus, signifying eed, are followed by 
the ablative : as, — 


magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii. 5), there is need of magistrates. 

nunc viribus tisus (Aén. viii. 441), ow there is need of strength. 

Norte. — With these words the ablative of the perfect participle, with or 
without a noun, is often found (§ 292. 4) : as, — 


opus est tua exprompta memoria atque astitia (Ter. And. 723), Z must 
have your good memory and cleverness set to work. 

properato opus erat (Mil. 49), there was need of haste. 

facto iisus est, zt 7s desirable to do (there is need of it’s being done). 


REMARK. — Frequently opus is in the predicate, with the ting needed in 
the nominative as subject : as, — 


diix nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6, 4), we need a chief and responsible 
adviser (a chief, etc., is necessary for us). 

si quid ipsi opus esset (B. G. i. 34), 7 he himself wanted anything (if 
anything should be necessary for him). 

J. Ege and indiges often take the genitive (§ 223): as, — 

né quis auxili egeat (B. G. vi. 11), Jest any require aid. 

quae ad consolandum mi§ioris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis virtitis 
indigent (Fam. vi. 4, 2), [sorrows] which for their comforting need 
more ability, and for endurance unusual courage. 


2. Ablative of Source and Material. 


244. (RULE 40.) The ablative (with or without a prepo- 
sition) is used to denote the Source from which anything 
is derived, or the Material of which it consists. 

These ablatives commonly take a preposition : as, — 

I. Source : — 


Rhénus oritur ex Lépontiis (B. G. iv. 10), the Rhine rises in (from) the 
country of the Lepontii. 


196 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 244. 


2. Material : — 
valvas magnificentidrés, ex auré atque ebore perfectidrés (Verr. iv. 124), 
more splendid doors, more finely wrought of gold and ivory. 
templum dé marmore ponam (Georg. iii. 13), 7 ’// build a temple of marble. 
Nore 1.— In poetry the preposition is often omitted. 
Note 2.— The Ablative of Material is a development of the Ablative 
of Source (cf. § 214). 
a. Participles denoting 477th or origin are followed by the Abla- 
tive of Source, generally without a preposition :! as, — 
Iove natus et Maia (N. D. iii. 56), son of Jupiter and Maia. 
quo sanguine crétus (Ain. ii. 74), born of what blood. 
REMARK. — A preposition (ab, dé, ex) is usually expressed with the 
name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors : as, — 
Trods est generatus ab illd (Ov. Fast. iv. 33), Zros was sprung from him. 
Bélus et omnés 4 Bél6 (Ain. i. 730), Belus and all his descendants. 
6. Rarely the place of birth is expressed by the ablative ; as, — 
désideravit C. Felginatem Placentia, A. Granium Puteolis (B. C. iii. 71), 
he lost C. Felginas of Placentia, A. Granius of Puteoli. 
Nore. — The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative : as, — 
Q. Verrem Romilia (Verr. i. 23), Quéntus Verres of the Romilian tribe. 
c. Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a prepo- 
sition. Such are cOnstare, cOnsistere, and continéri. But with con- 
stare, ex is more common. Thus, — 
domiis amoenitas non aedificid sed silva cdnstabat (Nep. Att. 13), %e 
charm of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods. 
ex animé constamus et corpore (Fin. iv. 19), we consist of soul and body. 
vita corpore et spiritii continétur (Marc. 28), /ife consists of body and spirit. 
d. The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with 
facere, fieri, and like words, in the sense of do with, become of: as, — 
quid hdc homine faciatis (Verr. II. i, 42), what are you going to do with 
this man ? 
quid Tulliola mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4), what will become of my dear Tullia? 
quid té futiirum est (Verr. ii. 155), what will become of you? 
é. The Ablative of Material with ex, and in poetry without a prepo- 
sition, sometimes depends directly on a noun: as, — 
non pauca pocula ex auré (Verr. iv. 62), nota few cups of gold. 
! ~~ scopulis pendentibus antrum (En. i. 166), a cave of hanging rocks. 
1 Such are natus, satus, éditus, genitus, ortus, prognatus, generatus, 
crétus, creatus, oriundus. 


§ 245.] ABLATIVE OF CAUSE. 197 


3. Ablative of Cause. 


245. (RULE 41.) The ablative (with or without a prepo- 
sition) is used to express Cause. 








nimid gaudid paene désipiébam (Fam. ii. 9), 7 was almost wild from too 
great joy. 
neglegentia plectimur (Lzl. 85), we are chastised for negligence. 
" certis dé causis, for certain reasons. 
mare 4 sole lticet (Acad. ii. 105), the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun). 


a. (RULE 42.) Certain. verbs and adjectives regularly take the 
ablative of cause without a preposition. These are — 
1. The adjectives dignus, indignus: as, — 
vir patre avd maidribus suis dignissimus (Phil. iii. 25), @ man most worthy 
of his father, grandfather, and ancestors. 
té omni hondre indignissimum iiidicat (Vatin. 39), he judges you entirely 
unworthy of every honor. 


2. The verbs dignor, laboro (also with ex), exsilid, exsultd, 
triumpho, lacrim6, arded: as, — 

haud equidem tali mé dignor hondre (Ain. i. 335), 7 do not deem meer 
worthy of such an honor. — 

doled té aliis malis labdrare (Fam. iv. 3), 7 am sorry that you suffer with — 
other ills. 

ex aere aliénd laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under debt (lit., from 
another’s money). 

exsilui gaudié (Fam. xvi. 16), 7 jumped for joy. 

délictd dolére (Lzl. 90), to grieve for the fault. 


NOTE 1.— For gaude6 and glorior, see § 254. 0. 
NoTE 2.— Dignus and indignus sometimes take the genitive in collo- 
quial usage and in poetry : as, — 
dignus salitis (Plaut. Trin. 1153), worthy of safety. 
magnorum haud umquam indignus avorum (Ain. xii. 649), never unworthy 
my great ancestors. 


Nore 3. — For the construction of dignus and indignus with verbs, see 
§ 320. 7. 

6. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is 
expressed by the ablative of cause; the odject exciting the emotion 
often by ob or propter with the accusative : as, — 


198 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 246. 


non ob praedam aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), ot for booty or 
through lust of plunder. 

amicitia ex sé et propter sé expetenda (Fin. ii. 83), friendship must be 
sought of and for itself. 

Note. — But these constructions are often confused: as, — 

parére légibus propter metum (Parad. 34), ¢o obey the laws on account of 
fear. (Here metum is almost equal to “the terrors of the law,” and 
propter is used where the ablative would be more natural. ]} 

c. The ablatives causa and gratia, for the sake of, are used with 

a genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement : as, — 

ea causa, 0” account of this ; qua gratia (Ter. Eun. 99), for what purpose ? 

mea causa, for my sake ; mea gratia (Plaut.), for my sake. 

praedictidnis causa (N. D. iii, 5), dy way of prophecy. 

exempli gratia (verbi gratia), for example. 

Nore. — But gratia with possessives in this use is rare. 


4. Ablative of Agent. 


246. (RULE 43.) The Voluntary Agent after a passive 
verb is expressed by the ablative with 4 or ab: as, — 


laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. Sat. i. 2. 11), he zs praised by these, 
blamed by those. 
né virtiis ab audacia vincerétur (Sest. 92), that valor might not be over- 
borne by audacity. 
REMARK. — The ablative of the agent (which requires 4 or ab) must be 
carefully distinguished from the ablative of zzstrument, which has no prepo- 
sition (§ 248. c. 1). Thus, — 
occisus gladi6, s/ain by a sword; but, occisus ab hoste, s/aiz by an enemy. 


a. The ablative of the agent with.ab is sometimes used after neuter 
verbs that have a passive sense : as, — 


perire ab hoste, fo de slain by an enemy. 


6. The agent, if conceived as instrument or means, is expressed 
by per with the accusative, or by opera with a genitive or possessive : 
as, — 

Caesar certior factus est 4 légatis, Cesar was informed by the ambassa- 

dors (in person). But— 

Caesar certior factus est per légatés, Cesar was informed by ambassadors 

(z.e. by means of ambassadors). 

non mea opera événit (Ter. Hec. 228), it has n't happened through me (by 

my exertions). 


§ 247.] ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON. 199 


Nore 1.—An animal is usually regarded not as the agent, but as the 
means or instrument. Uence the simple ablative is used. But ab some- 
times occurs. Thus, — 

equo vehi, 40 ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not 

ab equé.] But — 

Liicand cum sic laceréris ab ursd (Mart. Ep. 8), since you are thus 

mangled by a Lucanian bear. 


Nore 2.— For the Dative of the Agent with the Gerundive, see § 232. 


5. Ablative of Comparison. 


247. (RULE 44.) The Comparative degree is followed 
by the ablative (signifying THAN) ;_as,— 


Cato est Cicerdne Eloquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero. 

quid nobis dudbus labdridsius est (Mil. 5), what more burdened with toil 
than we two? 

vilius argentum est aur6, virtitibus aurum (Hor. ri i. 1. 52), silver is less 
precious than gold, gold than virtue. 








a. (RULE 45.) The comparative may be followed by quam, ¢han. 
When quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same 
case (cf. § 208. a). 

The construction with quam is required when the first of the things 
compared is in any other case than the nominative or accusative. 
With those cases its use is optional. Thus, — a 

contidnibus accommodatior est quam iiidiciis (Clu. 2), fitter for popular 

_ assemblies than for courts. 

misericordia dignior quam contumélia (Piso 32), more worthy of pity than 

of disgrace. 

REMARK. — Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take 
quam in this construction, but always the ablative : as, — 

réx erat Aenéas nobis, qué iiistior alter, etc. (Ain. i. 544), “eas was our 

hing, than whom no other was more righteous, etc. 

Nore. — The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the 
prose construction requires quam: as, — 

pane eged iam mellitis potidre placentis (Hor. Ep.i. 10.11), 7 want bread 

better than honey-cakes. 


4. The idiomatic ablatives opiniGne, spé, solitd, dictd, aequs, 
crédibili, and itist6 are used after comparatives instead of a clause : 
as, =a 


200 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 248. 


gravius aequo (Sall.), more seriously than was right. 
celerius opiniéne (Fam. xiv. 23), faster than one would think. 
amnis solit6 citatior (Liv. xxiii. 19), a stream swifter than its wont. 
sérius spé omnium (id. ii. 3), dater than all hoped (than the hope of all). 
c. After the comparatives plis, minus, amplius, longius without 
quam, a word of measure or number is often used with no change in 
its case: as, — 
plis septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), more than 700 were taken. 
plis tertia parte interfecta (Czs.), more than a third part being slain. 
spatium n6On amplius sexcentdrum pedum (id.), @ space of not more than 
600 feet. 
@. Alius is sometimes used with the ablative in poetic and collo- 
quial use ; in formal prose it takes ac (atque), nisi, quam. Thus, — 
alius Lysipp6 (Hor.), another than Lysippus. 
alid ingenio ac tii (Plaut.), of a different disposition from you. 
erat historia nihil aliud nisi annalium cOonfectid (De Or. ii. 52), Aistory 
was nothing else but a compiling of records. 
é. The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam, 
rarely by the ablative except in poetry. Thus, — 
tempus té citius quam 6ratid déficeret (Rosc. Am. 89), time would fail 
you sooner than words. But— 
ciir Sybaris olivum sanguine viperind cautius vitat (Hor. Od. i. 8. 9), why 
does Sybaris shun oil more carefully than viper’s blood ? 


6. Ablative of Manner. 
248. (RULE 46.) The manner of an action is denoted 
by the ablative ; usually with cum, unless a limiting adjec- 


tive is used_with.the-newn. Thus, — 


cum celeritate vénit, he came with speed. But — 

summa celeritate vénit, he came with the greatest speed. 

quid réfert qua mé ratidne cogatis (Lzl. 26), what difference does it make 
in what way you compel me? 

Note. — But cum is often used even when the ablative has a limiting 

adjective : as, — 

quanté cum periculd id fécerit (B. G. i. 17), at what risk he did this. 

REMARK. — In poetry the ablative of manner often omits cum: as, - ~ 

mons aquae sequitur cumuld (Ain. i. 105), @ mountain of water follows 
in amass. [Cf. murmure (id. 124) ; rimis (id. 123).] 


§ 248.] ABLATIVES OF ACCOMPANIMENT AND MEANS. 201 


7. Ablative of Accompaniment. 


a. (RULE 47.) Accompaniment is denoted by the abla- 
tive, regularly with cum: as, — 
cum coniugibus ac liberis vestris, with your wives and children. 
cum funditdribus sagittariisque flimen transgressi (B. G. ii. 19), having | 
crossed the river with the archers and slingers. 
Nore. — The ablative is used without cum in military phrases, and here 
and there by early writers: as, — 
subsequébatur omnibus copiis (B. G. ii. 19), e followed close with all his 
forces. 
hic praesidid profectus est (Verr. II. i, 86), with this force he set out. 
REMARK. — Misce6 and iungé, with their compounds, and cénfundd may 
take either (1) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum, or (2) 
sometimes the Dative: as, — 
mixta dolore voluptas (B. Al. 56), pleasure mingled with pain. 
flétumque crudri miscuit (Ov. Met. iv. 140), and mingled tears with blood. 
Caesar eas cohortés cum sud exercitii' coniiinxit (B. C. i. 18), Cesar 
united those cohorts with his own army. 
6. Words of Contention and the like require cum: as, — 


armis cum hoste certare, ¢o fight with the enemy in arms. 
libenter haec cum Q. Catulé disputarem (Manil. 66), 7 should gladly 
discuss these matters with Quintus Catulus. 
Norte. — But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see § 
229. ¢). 
8. Ablative of Means. 


c. I. (RULE 48.) The ablative is used to denote the 
means or instrument of an action : as, — 
certantis piignis, calcibus, unguibus, morsii dénique (Tusc. v. 77), fight 
ing with fists, heels, nails, and even teeth. 
cum piignis et calcibus concisus esset (Verr. iii. 56), when he had been 
pummelled with their fists and heels. 
2. The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives of 
filling, abounding, and the like : as, — 
aggere et cratibus fossas explent (B. G. vii. 86), they fill up the ditches 
with earth and fascines. 
totum montem hominibus complévit (id. i. 24), he filled the whole moun- 
tain with men. 
opimus praeda (Verr. II. i, 132), rich with spoils. 


202 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [$§ 249, 250. 


REMARK. — In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words by a 
Greekidiom. But compled, imple6, plénus, and refertus often take the geni- 
tive in prose (cf. § 223). Thus, — 

omnia pléna lictiis et maeroris fuérunt (Sest. 128), everything was full 

of grief and mourning. 

249. (RULE 49.) The deponents ttor, fruor, fungor, potior, 
vescor, with several of their compounds, govern the abla- 
tive : as, — 

iitar vestra benignitate (Arch. 18), 7 w7l/ avail myself of your kindness. 

ita mihi salva répiblica vobiscum perfrui liceat (Cat. iv. 11), s0 may J 

enjoy with you the state secure and prosperous. 


aurd héros potitur (Ov. Met. vii. 155), the hero takes the gold. 
fungi inani miinere (Ain. vi. 885), to perform an idle service. 


a. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase 
potiri rérum, fo get control or be master of affairs (§ 223. a): as, — 


tétius Galliae sésé potiri posse spérant (B. G. i. 3), they hope they can get 
possession of the whole of Gaul. 


9g. Ablative of Degree of Difference. 


250. (RULE 50.) With comparatives and words-imply- 


ing comparison the ablative is uséd to denote the Degree 
of Difference : as, — 
ened 


quinque milibus passuum distat, 7¢ zs five miles distant (by five miles). 

aliquot ante annis (Tusc. i. 4), several years before. 

mult6 mé vigilare acrius (Cat. i. 8), that 7 watch much more sharply 
(more sharply by much). 





REMARK. — This use is especially frequent with the ablatives qué. . . ed 
(hoc); quantd ... tanto (cf. § 106. c): as, — 
qué minus cupiditatis, e6 pliis auctdritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the less greed, 
the more weight (by what the less, by that the more). 
quanto erat gravior oppiignatid, tantd crébridrés litterae mittébantur 
(B. G. v. 45), the severer the siege was, the oftener letters were sent. 
Nore. — To this construction are doubtless to be referred all cases of 


quo and ed with a comparative, even when they have ceased to be felt as 
degree of difference and approach the Ablative of Cause: as, — 


edque mé minus paenitet (N. D.i. 8), and for that reason I regret less, 
etc. (by so much the less I regret). 


§§ 251, 252.] ABLATIVES OF QUALITY AND PRICE. 203 


a. The Ablative of Comparison (§ 247) and the Ablative of De- 
gree of Difference may be used together with the same adjective: as, — 


mult6 divitior Crass6, much richer than Crassus. 


to. Ablative of Quality. 


251. (RULE 51.) Quality is denoted by the Ablative 
with a Modifier (either an adjective or limiting genitive). 


This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality. 


animd melidre sunt gladiatorés (Cat. ii. 26), the gladiators are of a better 
mind. 

quae cum esset civitas aequissim6 iiire ac foedere (Arch. 6), as this was a 
city with perfectly equal constitutional rights. 

mulierem eximia pulchritidine (Verr. II. i, 64),@ woman of extraordi- 
nary beauty. 


Nore. — The Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality) modifies 
a substantive by describing it. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, 
_ and may be either attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other 
ablatives, which are equivalent to adverbs. Compare — 

mulier pulchra, a deautiful woman. 

mulier magna pulchritidine, a woman of great beauty, with — 

mulier pulchrittidine Troiam délévit, dy her beauty a woman destroyed 

Troy. 
mulier excelléns pulchritiidine (§ 253), @ woman preéminent in beauty. 


a. Inexpressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may often 
be used indifferently ; but Ahysécal qualities are oftener denoted by 
the Ablative : as,— 


capill6 sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), they have long hair. 


1x. Ablative of Price. 


252. (RULE 52.) Price is expressed by the ablative : 





“he 
agrum véndidit séstertiiim sex milibus, he sold the land for 6000 sesterces. 


Antonius régna addixit peciinia (Phil. vii. 15), Antony sold thrones for 
money. 


a. Certain adjectives of Quantity are used in the genitive to de- 


note indefinite value. Such are magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, pliris, 
minoris : as, — 


204 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 253. 


est mihi tanti (Cat. ii. 15), ¢¢ 2s worth the price (it is of much). 
mea magni interest, 7¢ zs of great consequence to me. 
illud parvi réfert (Manil. 18), this is of small account. 


Nore. — These are really genitives of quality (§ 215. c). 


b. The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used in the same way. 
Such are nihili, zothing ; assis, a farthing; flocci (a lock of wool), 
a straw. Thus, — 


non flocci facid (Att. xiii. 50), 7 care not a straw. 
utinam ego istiic abs té factum nihili penderem (Ter. Eun. 94), oh! that 7 
cared nothing for this being done by you! 


c. With verbs of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing 
given in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are: 
miutare, commitare, permitare, vertere. Thus, — 


fidem suam et religidnem peciiniad commiitare (Cluent. 129), to darter his 
Jaith and conscience for money. 

vertere fiineribus triumphds (Hor. Od. i. 35. 4), 40 change the triumph to 
the funeral train (exchange triumphs for funerals). 

exsilium patria séde mitavit (Q. C. iii. 7), Ae exchanged his native land 
for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land). 


Nore. — With verbs of exchanging cum is often used, perhaps with a 
different conception of the action : as, — 


ariés ... cum croced miitabit vellera latd (Ecl. iv. 44), the ram shall 
change his fleece for [one dyed with] the yellow saffron. 


@. With verbs of duying and selling the simple ablative of price 
must be used, except in the case of tanti, quanti, pliris, minGris: 
as, — 

quanti eam émit? vili ...-quot minis? quadraginta minis (Pl. Epid. 

51), what did he buy her for? Cheap. For how many mine ? Forty. 


12. Ablative of Specification. 


258. (RULE 53.) The Ablative of Specification denotes 


__ that 2uemespect to which anything zs or 7s done: as, — 


virtiite praecédunt (B. G. i. 1), they excel in courage. 

claudus alterd pede (Nep. Ages 8), Zame of one foot. 

sunt enim hominés non ré sed némine (Off. i. 105), for they are men not 
in fact, but in name. 

maior nati, o/der ; minor nati, younger (cf. § ol. c). 





§ 254-] ABLATIVE OF PLACE. 205 


infirmus mollisque natira (Lel. 75), weak and yielding by nature. 

hom6 mea sententia priidentissimus (Cecin. 22), a man,in my opinion, 

wery wise. 

equitatd pulsi erant (B. G. vii. 68), they had been beaten in the cavalry 

Sight. 

Note. — To this head are to be referred many expressions where the 
ablative denotes that zz accordance with which anything is or is done. 
But as the Romans had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to 
classify all uses of the ablative. Hence the ablative of specification is 
closely akin to that of manner, and to many ablatives developed from 
other fundamental ideas. Thus, — 

med iire, with perfect right ; but, med modo, zz my fashion: 

mea sententia, 7 my opinion ; but also more formally, ex mea sententia. 

{Here the sense is the same, but the first ablative is specification ; 
the second, source.] 

qui vincit viribus (Lzl. 55), who surpasses in strength. [Here it is im- 

possible to tell whether viribus is the meavs of the superiority or 
that zz respect to which one is superior. ] 


a. The Supine in -i, used chiefly with adjectives, is equivalent to 
an ablative of specification (cf. §§ 114. 4, 303): as,— 


mirabile dictii, marvellous ‘to tell. 


13. Ablative of Place. 


254. (RULE 57.) The ablative is used to denote the 
place where (usually with the preposition in, § 258. c). 


a. The ablative of the Alace where is retained in many idiomatic 
expressions (cf. § 259. a) which have lost the idea of place : as, — 
pendémus animis (Tusc. i. 96), we are in suspense of mind (in our 
minds). 
socius periculis vobiscum aderd (Jug. 85, 47), 7 wall be present with you, 
a companion in dangers. 
premit altum corde dolérem (AEn. i. 209), he keeps down the pain deep in| 
his heart. = 
6. 1. Several verbs are regularly followed by the ablative, origi- 
nally of place. These are : acquiésc6, délector, laetor, gauded, glo- 
rior, nitor, std, maned, fidd (cOnfidS), cSnsistd, contineor. 
nominibus veterum gloriantur (Orat. 169), hey glory in the names of the 
ancients. [Also, dé divitiis, in virtiite, circa rem, aliquid, gloriari.] 
spé niti (Att. iii. 9), ¢o rely on hope. 
priidentia fidéns (Off. i. 8), trusting in prudence. 


~ 


206 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 255. 


2. (RULE 42.) The verbals frétus, contentus, and laetus take 


the ablative either of place or meafisnas,.—""" 


frétus gratia Briiti (Att. v. 21, 12), relying on the favor of Brutus. 
laetus praeda, rejoicing in the booty. 
contentus sorte, content with his lot. [Possibly abl. of cause.] 


REMARK. — The ablative with the above verbs sometimes takes the 
' preposition in (and the ablative with them is probably locative): as, — 


in quibus causa nititur (Czl. 25), on whom the case depends. 
With several of these verbs the neuter accusative of pronouns is often 


found. 


14. Ablative Absolute. 


255. (RULE 54.) A noun or pronoun, with a participle, 
may be put in the ablative to define the time or circum- 


stangesok-ermaction : as, — 


- ndndum hieme confecta (B. G. vi. 3), the winter not yet over. 
né vobis quidem omnibus ré etiam tum probata (Cat. ii. 4), since at 
that time the facts were not yet proved even to all of you. 





a. An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the parti- 
ciple in the Ablative Absolute construction : as, — 


exigua parte aestatis reliqua (B. G. iv. 20), when but a small part of the 
summer was left (a small part of the summer remaining). 

M. Messala et M. PisOne consulibus (id. i. 2), 2 the consulship of Mes- 
sala and Piso (Marcus Messala and Marcus Piso being consuls). 
[The regular way of expressing dates, see § 259. ¢.] 


6. In later Latin a phrase or clause, used substantively, sometimes 
occurs as ablative absolute with a participle or an adjective : as, — 


incert6 quid peterent (Liv. xxviii. 36), as i was uncertain what they 
should aim at (it being uncertain, etc.). 

compert6 vanam esse formidinem (Tac. Ann. i. 66), when it was found 
that the alarm was groundless. : 


c. A participle or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in the 
ablative absolute without a substantive : as, — 
consult6 et cdgitatd (Off. i. 27), om purpose and with reflection (the matter 


having been deliberated and thought on). 
serénd (Liv. xxxi. 12), wuder a clear sky (it [being] clear). 


A) phy MOMS So AL Lhe 
f= 
§ 255.] ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 207 


da. The Ablative Absolute in its developed form often takes the 
place of a Subordinate Clause, the noun being equivalent to a subject, 
and the other word to the predicate. So may be replaced — 


1. Temporal clauses (§§ 322 ff.) : as, — 


patre interfectd, [his] father having been killed. [This corresponds to 
cum pater interfectus esset, when his father had been killed.| , 

recentibus sceleris €ius vestigiis (Q. C. vii. 1, 1), whzle the traces of the 
crime were fresh. (Cf. dum recentia sunt vestigia. | 


2. Causal clauses (§ 321) : as, — 


at ei qui Alesiae obsidébantur praeterita dié qua auxilia sudrum exspec- 
taverant, cOnsimpt6d omni frimenté, concilid coactd consultabant (B. 
G. vii. 77), but those who were under siege at Alesia since the time, 
etc., had expired, and their grain had been exhausted, calling a 
council (see 5 below), consulted together. [Cf. cum diés praeteriisset, 
etc. ] 

Daréus, déspérata pace, ad reparandas virés intendit animum (Q. C. 
iv. 6, 1), Darius, since he despaired of peace, devoted his energies to 
recruiting his forces. [Cf. cum pacem déspéraret. ] 


3. Concessive clauses (§ 313) : as, — 


at eO repignante fiébat (cdnsul), imm6 vérd ed fiébat magis (Milo 34), 
but though he (Clodius) opposed, he (Milo) was likely to be elected con- 
sul; nay, rather, etc. 


4. Conditional clauses (§ 304): as, — 


occurrébat el, mancam et débilem praetiram futiiram suam, consule 
Milone (Milo 25), 2¢ occurred to him that his pretorship would be 
maimed and feeble if Milo were consul. [si Mild consul esset. ] 

qua (regidne) subacta licébit décurrere in illud mare (Q. C. ix. 3, 13), # 
this region is subdued, we shall be free to run down into that sea. 

qua quidem détracta (Arch. 28), z/ this be taken away. 


5. Clauses of accompanying circumstance: as, — 


ego haec 4 Chrysogond mea sponte, remoto Sex. Rosci, quaero (Rosc. 
Am. 130), of my own accord, without reference to Sextus Roscius (S. R. 
being put aside), 7 ask these questions of Chrysogonus. 

nec imperante nec sciente nec praesente domino (Milo 29), without 
their master’s giving orders, or knowing it or being present. 


NoTE.— As the English case absolute (the nominative) is far less com- 
mon than the ablative absolute in Latin, a change of form is generally 
required in translation. Thus the present participle is oftenest to be ren- 


\ 


208 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 256. 
dered by a relative clause with when or while; and the perfect passive 
participle by the perfect active participle in English. These changes may 


be seen in the following example : — 


“At illi, zztermissd spatio, impri- 
dentibus nostris, atque occupdatis in 
miinitine castrérum, subitd sé ex 
silvis €iécérunt ; zmfetuique in eds 
facté, qui erant in statidne pr6 cas- 
tris collocati, acriter piignavérunt ; 
adudbusque missis subsidio cohortibus 
a Caesare, cum hae ( fperexigud in- 
termisso loci spatio inter sé) consti- 
tissent, novd genere piignae Zerter- 
ritis nostris, per medids audacissimé 
perriipérunt, s€que inde incolumés 
recépérunt.” —CasaR, B. G. v. 15. 


“ But they, Aaving paused a space, 
while our men were unaware and 
busied in fortifying the camp, sud- 
denly threw themselves out of the 
woods, then making an attack upon 
those who were on guard in front of 
the camp, they fought fiercely, and 
though two cohorts had been sent by 
Ceesar as reinforcements, after these 
had taken their position (/eaving very 
little space of ground between them) 
as our men were alarmed by the 
strange kind of fighting, they dashed 
most daringly through the midst of 
them, and got off safe.” 


VI. TIME AND PLACE, 


a |. 


Time. 


256. (RULE 55.) Time when, or within whitch, is ex- 
pressed by the Ablative ; time ow long by the Accusa- 


tive : as, — 
1. Ablative :— 


constitiita dié, on the appointed day ; prima lice, at daybreak. 
quota hora, at what o'clock ? tertia vigilia, 72 the third watch. 
tribus proxumis annis (Jug. 11), withix the last three years. 


2. Accusative : — 


diés continuGs triginta, for thirty days together. 
cum triduum iter fécisset (B. G. ii. 16), when he had marched three days. 


a. The Ablative of time within which sometimes takes in, and the 
Accusativé of time ow Jong, per for greater precision : as, — 


in diébus proximis decem (Sall.), wzthin the next ten days. 

in brevi spatid (Ov. Met. i. 411), within a brief space (of time). 

luidi per decem diés (Cat. iii. 20), games for ten days. 

é. Duration of time is occasionally expressed by the Ablative: as, — 


milités quinque h6ris proelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the men had sus- 


tained the fight five hours. 


§§ 257, 258.] PLACE FROM WHICH; END OF MOTION. 209 


2. Space. 


257. (RULE 37.) Extent of space is expressed by the 
Accusative : as,— 
fdssas quindecim pedés latas (B. G. vii. 72), trenches fifteen feet broad. 
in omni vita sua quemque 4 récta cOnscientia transversum unguem non ‘ 
oportet discédere (quoted in Att. xiii. 20), 2 al/ one’s life, one should 
not depart a nail’s breadth from straightforward conscience. 


a. Measure is often expressed by the Genitive of Quality (§ 215.4) : 
as, — 
vall6 pedum duodecim (B. G. ii. 30), 7 a rampart of twelve feet (in 
Bb height). 
‘_§, Distance when considered as extent of space is expressed by the 
Accusative ; when considered as degree of difference, by the Ablative 
(§ 250) : as, — 
f quinque diérum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), é¢ is distant five days’ march. 
\ triginta milibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), ¢hirty miles below 
\ ; that place (below by thirty miles). 


3. Place from Which and End of Motion. 


258. (RULE 56.) The place from which is denoted by 
the Ablative with ab, dé, or ex; the place to which (the 
End of Motion) by the Accusative with ad or in: as, — 

1. Place from which :— 


a septentriGne, from the north. 

dé provincia décédere, 0 come away from one’s province. 

dé monte, down from the mountain. 

negotiator ex Africa (Verr. II. i, 14), a merchant from Africa. 

ex Britannia obsidés misérunt (B. G. iv. 38), they sent hostages from 
Britain. j 

MOsa profluit ex monte Vosego (id. iv. 10), the Meuse (flows from) rises 
in the Vosges mountains. 

2. Place to which : — 


ad finés Hyrcaniae penetrat (Q. C. vi. 4, 2), he penetrates to the borders of 
fHyrcania. 

in Africam navigavit, he sailed to Africa. 

in Italiam profectus, gone to Jtaly. 

légatum in Treverds mittit (B. G. iii. 11), he sends his lieutenant into the 
[country of the] Zreveri. 


210 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 258. 


Note 1.— In poetry the end of motion is often expressed by the Dative 
(§ 225. 4. 3): as, — 
it clamor cael6 (Ain. v. 451), @ shout goes up to the sky. 

——" a. (RULE 56.) The names of towns or small islands from which, 
as also domus-and-ris, are put in the Ablative without a preposition : 
as, — ; 

Roma profectus, having set out from Rome. 
rire reversus, having returned from the country. 


Roma abesse, Zo be absent from Rome. 
dom6 abire, ¢o leave home. 


—<— NoTE 1.— With names of towns, etc., ab is often used, eserisitin' to 
denote from the vicinity of : as, — pie 


tes 


erat 4 Gergovia déspectus in castra (B. G. vii. 45), there was from about 
G. a view into the camp. 

profecti 4 dom6 (Liv. xl. 33), setting out from home. 

NoTE 2.—The ablative without a preposition is used to denote the 
place from which in certain idiomatic expressions : as, — 

céssisset patria (Mil. 68), Ae would have left his country. 

patria pellere, 4o drive out of the country. 

manii mittere, Zo emancipate (let go from the hand). 


NoTE 3.— The poets often omit the preposition where it would be 
required in prose : as, — 
manis Acheronte remiss6s (in. v. 99), the spirits returned from Acheron. 
ft b. (RULE 56.) The names of towns or small islands Zo which, a 
also domus and ris, are put inthe Accusative without a preposition : 
as, — 








Rémam rediit, he returned to Rome. 

Dél6 Rhodum nfavigare, zo sail from Delos to Rhodes. 

rus ibd, 7 shall go into the country. 

domum iit, ke went home. [So, suas domis abire, fo go to their homes.] 


NoTE 1.— In this use domum may be modified by a possessive pronoun 
or a genitive. When otherwise modified, domum requires the preposition 
in. Thus, — 


domum régis (Deiot. 17), to the king’s house. [But also in M. Laecae 
domum (Cat. i. 8), to WZ. Leca’s house.| But — 
in domum magnam venire, fo come into a large house. 


Nore 2.— With the names of towns, etc., ad may be used in the sense . 
of towards, to the neighborhood of: as, 5 ad 


§258.] THE PLACE WHERE. 211 


\ 


* ad Alesiam proficiscuntur (B. G. vii. 76), they set out for Alesia. 
ad Alesiam perveniunt (id. vii. 79), hey arrive at Alesia (come through to). 


ia ad Athénas navigare, Zo set satl for Athens (landing in the harbor). 
ee. 


NOTE 3. — The general words, urbs, oppidum, insula, require a preposi- 
tion in either construction (40 which or from which): as, ad urbem, ab urbe, 
ad urbem ROmam, Romam ad urbem, ex urbe Roma. 

Nore 4. — Two or more nouns are sometimes expressed after one verb’ 
as limits of motion (see § 259. /). 

_Nore 5.— The poets often omit the preposition with any noun : as, — 

Italiam Laviniaque vénit litora (Ain. i. 2), ke came to Italy and the. 

Lavinian shores. 

finis Italds mittére (id. iii. 440), you shall be allowed to reach the Italian 

boundaries. 

REMARK. — The preposition is omitted with the supine in -um (§ 302) 
and in the following old phrases : — 

exsequias ire, Zo go to the funeral. infitias ire, ¢o resort to denial. 

pessum Ire, Zo go to ruin. pessum dare, to ruin (cf. perdd). 

vénum dare, #o sel/ (give to sale). [Hence véndere. ] 

vénum ire, to de sold (go to sale). [Hence vénire.] 

foras (used as adverb), out: as, fords égredi, to go out of doors. 


4. The Place Where. 


ce. (RULE 57.) 1. The place where is denoted by the 
Ablative with the preposition in (Locative Ablative) : as, — 

in hac urbe vitam dégit, Ae passed his life in this city. 

si in Gallia remanérent (B. G. iv. 8), if they should stay in Gaul. 

oppidum in insula positum (id. vii. 58), @ town situated on an island. 

2. (RULE 57.) But names of towns and small islands 
are put in the Locative Case. (See 36. ¢, 40. a, and 62.) 

Romae, at Rome (Roma). Athénis, at Athens (Athénae). 


REMARK. — Large islands, and all places when thought of as a territory 
and not as a /ocality, are treated like names of countries : as, — 
in Sicilia, 7 Siczly. 
in Ithaca leporés illati moriuntur (Plin. H. N.), 2 /thaca hares when 
carried there die. [Ulysses lived at Ithaca, would require Ithacae. | 


Nore 1.— With all names of places AT, meaning ear (not 77), is ex- 
pressed by ad or apud with the Accusative. J the neighborhood of may be 
expressed by circa with the Accusative; among, by apud with the Accusa- 
tive. Thus, — 


212 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 258. 


pugna ad Cannas, the fight at Canne. 

conchas ad Caiétam legunt (De Or. ii. 22), at Caze¢a (along the shore). 

ad (apud) inferés, iz the world below (near or among those below). 

apud Graecos, among the Greeks. apud mé, at my house. 

Nore 2.—In citing an author, apud is regularly used ; in citing a partic- 
ular work, in. Thus, — 

apud Xenophontem, zz Xenophon. But— 

in XenophOntis Oeconomico, zz Xenophon's Ceconomicus. 


@. (RULE 57.) The Locative Case is also preserved in the follow- 
ing common nouns : — 





domi arely domui), at home. 

belli itiae (in contrast to domi), abroad, in military service. 
“humi, on the ground. rari, 72 the country. 

foris, out-of-doors. terra marique, dy /and and sea. 


These are used like names of towns, without a preposition. So, 
also,— 

heri(-e), yesterday. vesperi (e), 27 the evening. 

infélici arbori (Liv. i. 26), on the ill-omened tree. 


é. The locative domi may be modified by a possessive adjective 
or a limiting genitive ; but when it would be otherwise modified some 
other construction is used instead of the Locative. Thus, — 

domi Caesaris, at Cesar’s house. 

domi suae vel aliénae, at his own or another’s house. But — 

in Marci Crassi castissima domo (Cel. 9), zz the chaste home of Marcus 

Crassus. (Cf. ex Anniana Mildnis dom6, § 184. @.] 


jf. The place where is denoted by the Ablative without a prepo- 
sition in several constructions : — 

1. Regularly in many indefinite words, such as loc6, parte: as, — 

quibus locé positis (De Or. iii. 153), when these are set in position. 

qua parte victi erant (Cic.), on the side where they were beaten. But — 


exercitum castris continuit (B. G. i. 48), he kept his army in camp. 
[Here the construction is influenced by means.] 


2. Frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives (regu- 
larly when totus is used) : as, — 
media urbe (Liv. i. 33), 2” the middle of the city. 


tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 51), hroughout Sicily (in the whole of Sicily). So — 
tota Tarracina (De Or. ii. 240), t# all Tarracina (cf. c. 2. Rem.). 


§ 259.] SPECIAL USES OF TIME AND PLACE. 213 


3. Freely in poetry: as, — 
litore curv6 (/En. iii. 16), 0” the winding shore. 
antro séclisa relinquit (id. iii. 446), she leaves them shut up in the cave. 
Epird, Hesperia (id. iii. 503), i Epirus, in Hesperia. 
g. The way by which is expressed by the ablative without a prep- 
osition : as, — 
via brevidre equités praemisi (Fam. x. 9), 7 sent forward the cavalry by 
a shorter road. 
' Aegaed mari traiécit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), Ze crossed by way of the Aigean Sea. 
provehimur pelago (Ain. iii. 506), we sadl forth over the sea. 


5. Special Uses of Time and Place. 


259. The following special uses must be observed :— 


a. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of time when, 
where in English the main idea is rather of J/ace: as,—_ 

pugna Cannénsi (or apud Cannas), in the fight at Canne. 

lidis ROmanis, a¢ the Roman games. 

omnibus Gallicis bellis, zz al/ the Gallic wars. 

6. In many idiomatic expressions of time, the accusative with ad, 
in, or sub is used. Such are the following :— 


supplicatid décréta est in Kalendas lanuarias, a thanksgiving was voted 
Sor the rst of January. 

convénérunt ad diem, ¢hey assembled at the [appointed] day. 

ad vesperum, “#// evening ; sub vesperum, towards evening. 

sub idem tempus, about the same time. 

sub noctem, at nightfall. 


c. Time during which or within which may be expressed by the 
ablative of a noun in the singular, with an ordinal numeral : as, — 
quinto dié, within [just] four days (lit., on the fifth day). [The Romans 
counted both ends, see § 376. d.] 
régnat iam sextum annum, 4e has reigned going on six years (he is reign- 
ing now the sixth year). 
But also, — régnavit iam sex ann6s, he has already reigned for six years. 
d. Difference of time defore or after anything is variously ex- 
pressed : as, — 


post (ante) trés ann6s, post tertium annum, trés post annés, tertium post 
annum, tribus post annis, tertid post anno (§ 250), three years after. 

tribus annis (tertid ann6) post exsilium (postquam Giectus est,) three 
years after his exile. 


214 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 260. 


his tribus proximis annis, wzthin the last three years. 

paucis annis, a few years hence. 

abhinc annds trés (tribus annis), ante hds trés ann6s, three years ago. 
triennium est cum (trés anni sunt cum), ¢¢ zs three years since. 
octavo ménse quam (see § 262. note 2), the eighth month after. 


é. In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the 
_ ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition ; and 
the phrase itself may also be governed by a preposition. 
The year is expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablative 
absolute, often without a conjunction (§ 255. @) : as, — 
is diés erat a. d. quintum Kalendas Aprilis L. Pisone A. Gabinid cénsu- 
libus (B. G. i. 6), that day was the 5th before the calends of April 
(March 28), 2x the consulship of Piso and Gabinius. 
in a. d. v. Kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 7), 40 the 5th day before the calends of 
November (Oct. 28). 
xv. Kal. Sextilis, the 15th day before the calends of August (July 18).: 
[Full form: quintd decim6 dié ante Kalendas. } 


Jj. For AT, meaning ear (not zm), see § 258. c. note I. 


g. When motion to a place is implied in English, though not ex- 
pressed, the accusative with or without a preposition must be used in 
Latin : as, — 

coniiirati in ciriam convénérunt, the conspirators met in the Senate-house 


(came together into the Senate-house). 
concilium domum suam convocavit, he called a council at his own house. 


hk. When two or more names of place follow a verb of motion, 
each must be under its own construction. Thus, — 


quadridu6 qué haec gesta sunt rés ad Chrysogonum in castra L. Sullae 
Volaterras défertur (Rosc. Am. 20), within four days after this was 
done, the matter was reported TO Chrysogonus IN Sulla’s camp AT 
Volaterre. 


VII. USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 


260. Some Prepositions are used with the Accusative, 
some with the Ablative, and a few with both. 


a. Verbs of placing, though implying motion, take the construc- 
tion of the place zz which. 

Such are: pond and its compounds (except imp6nd), locG, col- 
loco, status, cOnstitud, etc. 


§ 261.] USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 215 


statuitur eques Romanus in Aprodni convivid (Verr. iii. 62),a Roman 
knight is brought into q banquet of Apronius. 

siin ind Pompéid omnia ponerétis (Man. 59), #f you made everything 
depend on Pompey alone. 

6. Position is frequently expressed by the Ablative with ab (rarely 

ex), properly meaning from: as, — 
a tergo, iz the rear. 
a sinistra, on the left hand. [CE. hinc, on this side.] 
- magna ex parte, iz a great degree ( from, i.e. in, a great part). 


c. Super in the sense of concerning takes the Ablative ; in all other 
senses it takes the Accusative : as, — 
hac super ré (Cic.), concerning this thing. 
sed hac ré super nimis (Att. x. 8, 10), but more than enough on that point. 
super culmina técti (Ain. ii. 695), above the house-top. 
super laterés coria indiicuntur (R. C. ii. 10), Aides are drawn over the 
bricks. 
super Numidiam (Jug. 19), deyond Numidia. 
super terrae tumulum (Legg. ii. 66), 02 the mound of earth. 
Note. — The ablative is used in poetry with super in other senses: 
as, — 
ligna super focd largé reponéns (Hor. Od. i. 9. 5), piling logs generously 
on the fire. 
nocte super media (Ain. ix. 61), after midnight. 


d. Subter takes the Accusative, except sometimes in poetry. 
Thus, — 

subter togam (Liv.), wader his mantle. But — 

subter litore (Catull.), delow the shore. 

e. Tenus (which follows its noun) regularly takes the wets 5 but 
sometimes the Genitive (§ 223. e). Thus, — 


Tauro tenus (Deiot. 36), as far as Taurus. 
capul6 tenus (Ain. ii. 553), up fo the hilt. - 
Corcyrae tenus (Liv. xxvi. 24), as far as Corcyra. 


261. Many words may be construed either as Preposi- 


tions or.as Adverbs : thus, — 


a. The adverbs pridié, postridié, propius, proximé,! usque — also 
(less frequently) the adjectives propior and proximus — may be fol- 
lowed by the Accusative (cf. §§ 207. 4, 234. e): as, — 


1Cf. prope, § 152. a. 


216 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. ({§ 26r. 


pridié Nonas linias (Cic.), the day before the Nones of June (June 4). 

ipse propior montem suds collocat (Jug. 49), Ze stations his men nearer 
the hill. 

proximé Pompéium sedébam (Att. 1.14), Z sat next to Pompey. (CE. 
proximus Pompéium sedébam. } 

pars insulae quae est propius sdlis occasum (B. G. iv. 28), the part of the 
island which is nearer the west (sunset). 

terminds usque Libyae (Just.), to the bounds of Libya. 


NoTeE. — Pridié and postridié take also the Genitive (§ 223. ¢. note 2). 
Propior, propius, proximus, and proximé take also the Dative, or the Abla- 
tive with ab. Usque is commonly followed by ad. Thus, — 


propius Tiberi (Nep.), zearer the Tiber. 
propius ab urbe (Plin.), zearer the city. 
usque ad mare, Zo the sea. 


6. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may be used as prepositions 
and take the Ablative (so, perhaps, intus): as, — 


rem créditdri palam populd solvit (Liv. vi. 14), Ze patd the debt in the 
presence of the people. 

haud procul castris in modum minicipii exstriicta (Tac. H. iv. 22), zot 
Sar from the camp, built up like a town. 

simul nobis habitat barbarus (Ov. Tr. v. 10. 29), close. among us dwells 
the barbarian. 


Norte.— But simul regularly takes cum; procul is usually followed by 
ab in classic use ; and palam as a preposition is comparatively late. Thus, — 


procul a mari, far from the sea. 
nobiscum simul, az the same time with ourselves. 


c. The adverb clam is found with the Accusative or Ablative, 
rarely with the Genitive or Dative : as, — 


clam matrem suam (Plaut.), uzknown to his mother. 
clam mihi (id.), 2” secret from me. 

clam patris (id.), without his father’s knowledge. 
clam vobis (B. C. ii. 32), without your knowledge. 


@. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as adverbs. 
So, especially, — 
1. Ante and post in relations of time: as, — 


quae paulo ante praecepta dedimus (Cic.), a Uttle while ago, etc. 
post tribus diébus, ¢hree days after (cf. § 259. d). 


§§ 262, 263.] USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 217 


2. Adversus, contra, circiter, prope: as, — 
adversus resistere, ¢o hold out in opposition. 
Aeolus haec contra, thus olus in reply. 

3. In general those ending in -a: as, — 


forte fuit iixta tumulus, there happened to be a mound close by. 


262. Some prepositions or adverbs which imply Com- 
parison are followed, like comparatives, by quam, either 
attached to them or separated by several words, or even 
clauses. 

neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10), zor did he let 


him go until he gave a pledge. 
post diem tertium quam dixerat (Mil. 44), the third day after he said it. 


NoTE 1.—Such words are ante, prius, post, pridié, postridié; also 
magis and prae in compounds: as, — 


Caté ipse iam servire quam pignare mavult (Att. vii. 15), Cato himself 
by this time would rather be a slave than fight. 


NoTE 2.— The ablative of time (§ 256) is sometimes followed by quam 
in the same way: as, — 


octav6 ménse quam (Liv. xxi. 15), within eight months after, etc. 


263. For 4 or ab with the Ablative of Agent, see 
§ 246. 
Nore. — The following prepositions sometimes follow their nouns: ad, 


citra, circa, contra, dé, 6 (ex), inter, iiixta, penes, propter, ultra, tenus 
(regularly), and occasionally others : as, — 


[iisus] quem penes arbitrium est et itis et ndrma loquendi (Hor. A. P. 
72), custom, under whose control is the choice, right, and rule of speech. 

ciiius 4 mé corpus est crematum, quod contra decuit ab ills meum (C. M. 
84), whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], whzle on the contrary 
(lit. contrary to which) mine should have been burned by him. 


218 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 264. 


3. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 


I. MOODS AND TENSES. 


The proper verbal constructions may be thus classified : — 
1. INDICATIVE: Direct Assertion or Question (§ 264). 


Wish Exhortation, Command, 
: Question (§ 265. a). 
1. Purpose (with ut, né) (§ 317). 
2. Result (with ut, ut non) (§ 319). 
2. SUBJUNCTIVE: < 3. Characteristic (Relative Clause) 
(§ 320). 
4. Time (with cum) (§ 325). 
a Future (less vivid) (§ 
5. Condi- 307. 3, c). 
tions: } Contrary to Fact (§ 
308). 

6. Intermediate (Indirect Dis- 

course) (§ 341). 
7. Indirect Questions or Com- 


| mands (§§ 334, 339). 


. Direct Commands (often subjunctive) (§ 269). 
. Statutes, Laws, and Wills (§ 269. ¢). 
3. Prohibitions (early or poetic use) (§ 269. note). 


a, Independent : 


6. Dependent : 








No 


3. IMPERATIVE: { 


(a. Subject of esse and Impersonal verbs (§ 270). 


5. Objective { 1. Complementary Infinitive(§27 1). 


2. Indirect Discourse (with subject- 


Constructions: é 
accusative) (§ 272). 
4. INFINITIVE: 1. Purpose (poetic or Greek use) 
c. Idiomatic (§ 273). 
Uses: 2. Exclamation (with subject-ac- 


cusative) (§ 274). 
q 3. Historical Infinitive (§ 275). 





MOODs. + 
I. THE INDICATIVE. 


264. The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions 
or questions when there is no modification of the verbal 
idea except that of time. 


§ 265.] MOODS. 219 


a. The Tenses of the Indicative generally denote time, as present, 
past, or future, with reference to the speaker (§§ 276 ff.). 

é. The Indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom 
would suggest the Subjunctive : as, — 

longum est, z# would be tedious [if, etc.]. 

satius erat, tt would have been better [if, etc.]. 

persequi possum, / might follow up [in detail]. 

¢. The Future is sometimes used for the Imperative (§ 269. /). 

d. The Indicative is used in some kinds of conditions,($§ 306, 308). 


II, THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 


265. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal 
idea with some modification! such as is expressed in Eng- 
lish by auxiliaries, by the infinitive, or by the rare subjunc- 
tive (§ 112. 0). 

The uses of the subjunctive are zxdependent or dependent. 

a. The Subjunctive is used zadependently to express — 

(1) An Exhortation, comeeen or Command (Hortatory, 
§ 266). 
(2) A Wisk (Optative, § 267). 
(3) A a ae ee (Deliberative, 
§ 268). 
b. The Subjunctive is used in ladoudous clauses to express — 


(1) Purpose (Final, § 317). 

(2) Resulte( Consecutive, § 319). 

(3) Characteristic (§ 320). 

(4) Time Temporal, § 325). 

(5) Indjrect Oucation($" 33.4). 

(6) Conditignssdlture or contrary to fact ($$ 307. 4, c, 308). 


c. The subjunctive is also used with Particles of Comparison 
(§ 312), and in subordinate clauses in the Indirect Discourse (§ 336). 


1 These modifications are of various kinds, each of which had its own 
special development. The subjunctive in Latin has also many idiomatic 
uses (see clauses of Result and Time), where the English does not modify 
the verbal idea at all, but expresses it directly; but in these cases the 
Latin merely takes a different view of the action, and has developed its 
construction differently from the English. 


220 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 266. 


1. Hortatory Subjunctive. 


266. (RULE 68.) The Hortatory Subjunctive is. used 


to express an exhortation, a cOmmaud,..2CONCESSLOY, OF a 
condition. ; 
hos latronés interficiamus (B. G. vii. 38), et ws Rill these robbers. 


caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verécundiae (Off. i. 122), let them 
shun excess and cherish modesty. 


Note 1.— The simple subjunctive of exhortation and command takes 
the present tense, less commonly the perfect. The Perfect represents“an 
action as completed in future time, but in most cases is equivalent to the 
Present. Other tenses are used in some varieties of this construction (see 
¢, note, and é), 


REMARK. — The negative particle with the hortatory subjunctive is né. 


a. The Second Person is used only of an cndefinite subject, except 
in prohibition, in early Latin, and in poetry (cf. § 269. 6). Thus, — 


initirias fortiinae, quas ferre nequeas, défugiend6 relinquas (Tusc. v. 118), 
the wrongs of fortune, which you cannot bear, leave behind by flight. 

exoriare aliquis ultor (Ain. iv. 625), vise, some avenger. 

né conferas culpam in mé (Ter. Eun. 388), don’t lay the blame on me. 


6. In Prohibitions addressed to a definite person, the perfect is 
more common than the present (cf. § 269. a) : as, — 


hoc facitd : hoc né féceris (Div. ii. 127), thou shalt do this ; thou shalt not 
do that. 

ti né quaesieris (Hor.), do not inquire. 

nec mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 25), azd do not say that to me. 


c. The hortatory subjunctive may express a CONCESS some- 
times with ut, né, quamyis, quamlibet, or’similar words (cf. § 313.@) : 
an 

fuerit aliis : tibi quand6 esse coepit (Verr. II. i, 37), suppose he was [so] 

to others, when did he begin to be to you? 

ut rationem Platé niillam afferret (Tusc. i. 49), though Plato adduced no 

reasons. 

ném6 is unquam fuit : né fuerit (Or. 101), there never was such a one [you 

will say]: granted (let there not have been). 

quamvis scelerati illi fuissent (De Or. i. 230), however guilty they might 

have been. 


§ 267.] OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 221 


Norte. — In this use the Present refers to future or indefinite time, the 
Imperfect to present or past time (the concession being impliedly untrue), 
the Perfect to past or completed future time, the Pluperfect to completed 
action in past time (the concession being usually untrue). 


ad. The hortatory subjunctive may denote a Proviso or CoN- 


DITION (see $$ 310. 4, 314): 
é. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive 
denote an UNFULFILLED OBLIGATION in past time: as, — 


morerétur, inquiés (Rab. Post. 28), he should have died, you will say. 
potius diceret (Off. iii. 88). Ze should rather have said. 
né poposcissés (Att. ii. 1, 3), you should not have asked. 


z. Optative Subjunctive. 


267. (RULE 69.) The Subjunctive is used to express 


a Wish. The present tense denotes the wish as osszb/e, 
the im imperfect as wngccomplisied in present time, the plu- 


perfect as wnaccomplished in past time. Thus,— » 


ita vivam (Att. v. 15), so may I live (as true as I live). 

et err 2 . ‘ 

né vivam si scio (id. iv. 16, 8), 7 wish I may not live if 1 know. 

di té perduint (Deiot. 21), the gods confound thee ! 

valeant, valeant, civés mei; valeant, sint incolumés (Mil. 93), farewell 
[he says], my fellow-citizens ; may they be secure from harm. 

di facerent sine patre forem (Ov. Met. viii. 72), would that the gods 
allowed me to be without a father (but they do not)! 


REMARK. — The negative particle with the optative subjunctive is né. 
a. The Perfect in this use is antiquated : as, — 


male di tibi faxint (Plaut. Curc. 131), may the gods do thee a mischief. 
quod omen di Averterint (Phil. xii. 14, in a religious formula), azd may 
the gods avert this omen. 


b. The Optative ee is often preceded by the particles Whi mms 


(ut), utinam, 5 si: as, 


ut pereat positum robigine télum (Hor. Sat. ii. 1, 43), may the swdaoe 
unused perish with rust. 

falsus utinam vatés sim (Liv. xxi. 10), 7 wish Z may be a false prophet. 

utinam P. Clodius viveret (Mil. 103), would that Clodius were now alive. 

6 si angulus ille accédat (Hor. Sat. ii. 6. 8), of / if that corner might only 
be added, 


222 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [$§ 268, 269. 


Note 1.— The subjunctive with uti, etc., was originally deliberative, 
meaning how may J, etc. (§ 268). The subjunctive with 6 si (poetical) is a 
protasis (§ 312. note) ; si alone is sometimes used to express a wish in the — 
same way: as, — 

si nunc sé nobis ille aureus ramus ostendat (Ain. vi. 187), if now that 

golden branch would only show itself to us ! 


¢. Velim and vellem, and their compounds, with a subjunctive or 
infinitive, are often equivalent to an optative subjunctive : as, — 


dé Menedém6 vellem vérum fuisset, dé régina velim vérum sit (Att. xv. 
4, 4), about Menedemus I wish it had been true ; about the queen I hope 
it may be. 

ndllem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10, 2), 7 wish the time never had come. 


3. Deliberative Subjunctive. 


268. (RuLe 70.) The Subjunctiye is usedin questions 
implying (1) doubt, indignation, or (2) an impossibility of 
the thing being done :. as, — 





(Verr. ii. 40), what are you to do with this man? what fit penalty can 
you devise for his wantonness ? 
On venirem (Phil. ii. 3), what, should I not have come ? 
mihi umquam bonorum praesidium defuturum putarem (Mil. 94), could 
L think that the defence of good men would ever fail me ? 
quis enim célaverit ignem (Ov. Her. xv. 7), who could conceal the flame ? 


REMARK. — This use is apparently derived from the Hortatory Subjunc- 
tive : quid faciamus ? = faciamus [aliquid], quid? /e¢us do—what? Once 
established, it was readily transferred to the past : quid faciam? what AM J 
to do? quid facerem? what was J todo? Questions implying impossibility, 
however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis. 


Note. — The Deliberative Subjunctive is sometimes called Duditative. 


if 
Ill. THE IMPERATIVE. 4 


269. The Imperative is used in. Commands and En- _ 


“eens 





treaties : as, — 
al 


cOnsulite vobis, prospicite patriae, cOnservate vds (Cat. iv. 3), have a care 
_ for yourselves, guard the country, preserve yourselves. 
dic Marce Tulli sententiam, A/arcus Tullius, state your opinion. 


§ 269.] DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 223 


ae 


Norte. — In Negative Commands (f/rohibitions) the Present Imperative 
with né is used by early writers and the poets: as, — 


né timé (Plaut. Curc. 520), don’t be afraid. 
nimium né créde colori (Ecl. ii. 17), trast not too much to complexion. 
equo né crédite (Ain. ii. 48), trust not the horse. 


a. (RULE 71.) Prohibition is regularly expressed in ° 
classic prose :— 


1. By né with the second person of the Perfect Subjunctive ; as, — 

né territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), don’t be alarmed. 

2. By noli with the infinitive : as, — 

ndli putare (Fam. xiv. 2), do not suppose (be unwilling to suppose). 

Norte. — The poets frequently use instead of noli other words of similar 
meaning (cf. § 273. c): as, — 

parce pias scelerare maniis (Ain. iii. 42), forbear to defile your pious hands. 

3. By cave with or without né (colloquially fac né) with the Pres- 
ent or Perfect Subjunctive is 266. 6): as, — 

cave putés (Att. vii. 20), Bi ase 

cave dixeris, don’t say so. = 

fac né quid aliud ciirés (Fam. xvi. fr), see that you attend to nothing else. 

Norte. — Other negatives sometimes take the place of né: as,— 

non dubitaveris (Sen. Q. N. i. 3, 3), you must not doubt. 

nihil igndveris (Mur. 65), grant no pardon (pardon nothing). 

6. General Prohibitions addressed to no definite person are regu- 
larly expressed by the Present Subjunctive with né (cf. c, below) : 
as, — 

dénique ists bond itare dum adsit: cum absit né requiras (C. M. 33), 

in short, use this good while present ; when wanting, do not regret it. 

Note. — The poets and early writers sometimes use the Present Sub- 
junctive with né in prohibitions not general: as, — 

molestus né sis (Plaut. Most. 771), don’t be troublesome. 

né sis patruus mihi (Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 88), don’t be a [harsh] uncle to me. 

c. The third person of the Imperative is antiquated or poetic : — 

iiista imperia suntd, eisque civés modesté parentd (Leg. iii. 6), Zet there 


be lawful authorities, and let the citizens strictly obey them. 


1In prohibitions the Subjunctive with né is hortatory ; that with cave is 
an object clause (originally hortatory, cf. § 331. 4 Rem.). 


224 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 269. 


NoTE. — In prose the Hortatory Subjunctive is commonly used instead 
(§ 266) : as, — 

haec igitur léx in amicitia sanciatur (Lzl. 40), Zet this law be laid down 
in case of friendship. 

d. The Future Imperative is used in commands, etc., where there 

is a distinct reference to future time; viz.,— 

1. In connection with a condition precedent (asa future, a future 

perfect, or an imperative). Thus, — 

Phyllida mitte mihi, meus est natalis, Iolla; cum faciam vitula pro. 
frigibus ipse venit6 (Ecl. iii. 76), sexd Phyllis to me, it is my birth- 
day, Lollas; when T sacrifice a heifer for the harvest, come yourself. 

dic quibus in terris, etc., et Phyllida sdlus habéto (id. iii. 107), edd in 
what lands, etc., and have Phyllis for yourself. 














2. With adverbs or other expressions of Time: as, — 

cras petito, dabitur (Pl. Merc. 770), ask to-morrow [and] it shall be given. 

3. In general directions, as Precepts, Statutes, and Wills : as, — 

cum valétiidini consulueris, tum consulité navigatidni (Fam xvi. 4), when 
you have attended to your health, then look to your sailing. 

Borea flante, né aratd, semen né iacitd (Plin. H. N. xviii. 77), when the 
north wind blows, plough not, nor sow your seed. 


e. The verbs ole. sacmalad and bales (in the sense of consider), 
regularly use the Future Imperative instead of the Present : as, — 

filiol6 mé auctum scité (Att. i. 2), /earn that Lam blessed with a little boy. 

sic habét6, mi Tird (Fam. xvi. 4), so understand it, my good Tiro. 

dé palla mementé, amabo (Pl. Asin. 939), remember, dear, about the gown. 

Jf. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the Imperative ; 


and quin (wy not?) with the Present Indicative may have the force 
of a command: as, — 





si quid acciderit novi, faciés ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8), you will let me know 
tf anything new happens. 

quin accipis (Ter. Heaut. 832)? here, take it (why not take it ?). 

g- Instead of the simple Imperative, ctira, fac, or velim, followed 

by the Subjunctive with or without ut is often used, especially in col- 
‘ loquial language : as, — 

cira ut Romae sis (Att. i. 2), take care to be at Rome. 

fac ut valétiidinem ciirés (Fam. xiv. 17), see that you take care of your 
health. [Cf. ris ed. fac, amabo (Ter: Eun. 533), 7’ going into the 
country. Do, please.| 

domi adsitis facite (id. 506), de at home, do. 


§ 270.] INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT. 225 


tee HE INFINITIVE. 


1. Infinitive as Subject, etc. 


270. (RuLE 58.) The Infinitive, with or without a 
subject-accusative, may be used with est and similar verbs 
(1) as fhe Subject, (2) in Apposition with the subject, or | 


ss as a Predicate Nominative. Thus, — 


. Subject: as 
dolére malum est (Fin. v. 84), to suffer pain ts an evil. 
pulchrum est benefacere rei piiblicae (Sall. Cat. 3), # zs a noble thing to 
benefit the state. 
motds praestat componere fiticttis (Ain. i. 135), a 2s better to calm the 
troubled waves. 








2. In Apposition with the Subject: as, — 

proinde quasi) initiriam facere id démum esset imperid Ye san. Cat. 12), 
just as if this,—to commit injustice,—were to use power. [Here 
facere is in apposition with id.] 

3. Predicate Nominative : as, — *s 

id est convenienter natiirae vivere (Fin. iv. 41), chat és to live in con- 

formity with nature. (Cf. iti in the last example.] 

Nore 1.— An infinitive may also be used as Direct Object in connec- 
tion with a Predicate Accusative, or as Appositive with such Direct 
Object : as, — 

istii¢ ipsum non esse cum fueris miserrimum putd (Tusc. i. 12), for Z 

think this very thing most wretched, not to be when one has been. — 

NoTE 2.— An Appositive or Predicate noun used with an infinitive in 
any of these constructions is put-in the Accusative, whether the infinitive 
has a subject expressed or not. Thus, — 

non esse cupidum peciinia (Parad. 51), 40 be free from desires (not to be 

desirous) 7s money in hand. 

a. The infinitive as subject is not common except with est and 
similar verbs, but is occasionally used with verbs apparently more 
active in meaning : as, — S 

qu6ds omnis eadem cupere, eadem disse, eadem metuere in tinum coégit 

(Jug. 31, 10), a// of whom the fact of desiring, hating, and fearing the 
same things has united into one. 

ingenuas didicisse fidéliter artés émollit mdrés (Ov. ex P. ii. 9. 48), 

Saithfully to have learned liberal arts softens the manners. 
' posse loqui ripitur (Oy. M. ii, 483), the power of speech is taken away. 


226 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 271. 


6. The infinitive is used with many impersonal verbs and expres- 
sions, partly as subject and partly as complementary infinitive (§ 271). 
Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est, pudet, 
piget, necesse est, opus est, etc. 
id primum in poétis cerni licet (De Or. iii. 27), thts may be seen first in 
poets. 
Teperi¢bat quid dici opus esset (Brut. 215), 4e found what needed t ‘to be 
said. * 
neque mé vixisse paenitet (C. M. 84), 7 do not feel sorry to have lived. 
NoTE 1.— These are generally not real cases of the infinitive used as 
subject, but they approach that construction. 
c. Rarely the infinitive is used exactly like the accusative of a 
noun : as, — 
beaté vivere alii in alid, vos in voluptate ponitis (Fin. ii. 86), a Aappy life 
different [philosophers] dase on different things, you on pleasure. 


2. Complementary Infinitive. 


271. (RULE 59.) Verbs which imply another action of 
the same subject to complete their meaning take the in- 
finitive without a subject-accusative : as, — 

“hoc ques Wicere (Cat. Maj. 32), this 7 can say. 
_ mittd quaerere (Rosc. Am. 53), Z omit to ask. 
vereor laudare praesentem (N. D. i. 58), 7 fear to praise a man to his face 
(one who is present). 

Such are verbs denoting to be able, dare, undertake, remember, 
forget, be accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how, 
fear, and the like. 


Note. — The mark of this construction is that no Subject of these in- 
finitives is in general admissible or conceivable. 


a. Many verbs take either a subjunctive clause or a complementary 
infinitive, without difference of meaning. Such are verbs signifying 
willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, effort, 
and the like (cf. § 331): as, — 

student excellere (Off. i. 116), they aim to excel. 

cum statuissem scribere ad té aliquid (Off.i. 4), when 7 had resolved to 

address something to you. . 
istum exhérédare in anim6d habébat (Rosc. Am. oy he had it in mind to 
deprive him of the inheritance. 


§272.]| JNFINITIVE WITH SUBJECT-ACCUSATIVE. 227 % 
Note 1. — With some of these verbs an infinitive with subject-accusa- . 
tive may be used as odject, taking the place of a complementary infinitive. 
In this use the subject of the infinitive and that of the main verb are of 
course the same. Thus, — 
cupid mé esse clémentem (Cat. i. 4) = cupid esse clémens, / desire to be 
merciful (cf. § 331. 4. note). 


NoTE 2. — Some verbs of these classes never take the subjunctive, but 
are identical in meaning with others which do: as, — 


2 quds tuéri \débent déserunt (Off. i. 28), they forsake those whom they should 
"protect. 
non\lubet fugere aved pignare (Att. ii. 18, 3), 7 have no desire to run 
away, [’m anxious to fight. 


6. Some verbs of these classes —iubed and veto regularly — may 
take (as object) the infinitive with a subject different from that of the 
main verb (see § 331. a) : as, — 
signa inferri iubet (Liv. xlii. 59), Ae orders the standards to be advanced. 

) Pompéius...rem ad arma dédiici studébat (B.C. i. 4), Pompey was 
anxious to have matters come to open war. 


c. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after a complementary infinitive 
takes the case of the subject of the main verb: as, — 


> fierique studébam éius priidentia doctior (Lzl. 1), 7 was eager to become 
; more wise through his wisdom. 
scid quam soleas esse occupatus (Fam. xvi. 21, 7), 7 know how busy you 
usually are (are wont to be). 


Nore. — If the construction of the main verb is impersonal, a predicate 
noun or adjective is in the accusative (but for licet, etc., see § 272. a. 2). 
Thus, — ; 


zy peregrini officium est minimé in aliéna esse ré publica ciiridsum (Off. i. 
125), 2 ts a stranger's duty to be by no means curious in a foreign state. 


3. Infinitive with Subject-Accusative. 


272. (RULE 60.) The Infinitive, with Subject-Accusa- 
tive, is used with verbs and other expressions of knowing, 
thinking, telling, and perceiving (Indirect Discourse, 
§ 336): as, — 


dicit montem ab hostibus tenéri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the hill is held 


by the enemy. (Direct: mons ab hostibus tenétur. ] 
*e . 


228 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 273. 


REMARK. — The Infinitive Clause may be —1. the Direct Object of the 
verb: as, Caesarem adesse niintiavit, he reported that Caesar was present ; 
2. the Subject of the same verb in the passive: as, Caesarem adesse niin- 
tidtum est, zt was reported that Cesar was present ; 3. the Predicate Nom- 
inative after some such phrase as rumor est: as, rumor erat Caesarem adesse, 
there was a report that Cesar was present. 

a. 1. With certain impersonal verbs and expressions that take the 
infinitive as an apparent subject (§ 270. 4), the personal subject of the 
action may be expressed — 

(1) By a dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase: or 

(2) By anaccusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive. 
Thus, — 

rogant ut id sibi facere liceat (B. G. i. 7), they ask that it be allowed them 

to do this. 
) +exstingui homini sud tempore optabile est (Cat. Maj. 85), #¢ 7s desirable for 
j a man to die at the appointed time. 

2. With licet regularly, and other verbs occasionally, a predicate 
noun or adjective following the infinitive may be in the dative : as, — 
2 licuit esse dtiss6 Themistocli (Tusc. i. 33), 7hemistocles might have been 
4 inactive (it was allowed to T. to be inactive). 

cir his esse liberds n6n licet (Flacc. 71), why zs it not allowed these men 

to be free? 

non est stantibus omnibus necesse dicere (Marc. 33), # és not necessary 

Jor all to speak standing. 

Note. — When the subject is not expressed, as being indefinite (ove, 
anybody), a predicate noun or adjective must be in the accusative (cf. § 271. 
¢. note): as, — « 

vel pace vel bello clarum fieri licet (Sall. Cat. 3), oe can become illus- 

trious either in peace or in war. 

&. In poetry, by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Neat or Adjective i in 
the indirect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject_of the main 
verb: as, — 

sénsit medids délapsus in hostés (Ain. ii. 377), Ae found himself fallen 

among the foe. [In prose: sé esse délapsum. | 


4. Infinitive of Purpose. 
273. In a few cases the Infinitive retains its original 
meaning of Purpose. 


7 a. The infinitive is used after habed, do, ministr6, in isolated 
" passages instead of a subjunctive clause : as, — e 


J 


§ 273.] INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE. 229 


tantum habeo pollicéri (Fam. i. 5), so much I have to promise. [Here 
the more formal construction would be quod pollicear. | 
meridié bibere datd (Cato R. R. 89), give (to) drink at noonday. 
4. Paratus, suétus and their compounds (used as adjectives) take 
the infinitive, like the verbs from which they come: as, — 


currii succédere suéti (Ain. iii. 541), accustomed to being harnessed to the 


chariot. 
-adsuéfacti superari (B. G. vi. 24), used to being conquered. 

Note. — These words more commonly in prose take the gerund or 
gerundive construction (§§ 296 ff.) either in the Dative, the Genitive, or the 
Accusative with ad. Thus, — 

* alendis liberis suéti (Tac. Ann. xiv. 27), accustomed to supporting children. 

Insuétus navigandi (B. G. v. 6), usused to making voyages. 

corpora insuéta ad onera portanda (B. C. i. 78), dodies unaccustomed to 

carry burdens. 

c. In poetry and later writers almost any verb may have the infini- 
tive, after the analogy of verbs of more literal meaning that take it 
in prose: as, — / 

parce scelerare (AEn. iii. 42), forbear to pollute. 

d. Many adjectives take the infinitive in poetry following a Greek 
idiom : as, — 

cantari dighus (Ecl. v. 54), worthy to be sung. [In prose: qui cantétur. ] 
? cantare periti (Ecl. x. 32), skilled in song. 

nescia vinici pectora (Ain. xii. 527), hearts not knowing how to yield. 

%. Ene poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express 
purpose when there is no analogy with any prose construction : as, — 

léricam/ dénat habére vird (Ain. v. 262), he gives the hero a breastplate to 

wear. [In prose : habendam.] 

non ferrd Libycds populare Penatés vénimus (En. i. 527), we have not 

come to lay waste with the sword the Libyan homes. 


Note. — So rarely in prose writers of the classic period. 
J. For the infinitive used instead of a substantive clause of purpose, 


see § 331. a-g. 
sr 


Nore. — For tempus est abire, see § 298. note. 

g. Rarely in poetry the infinitive is used to express vesu/t: as,— 

fingit ecum tenera docilem cervice magister ire viam, etc. (Hor. Ep. i. 
2. 64), makes the horse gentle so as to go, etc. 


_ hic levare ... pauperem laboribus vocatus audit (Hor. Od. ii. 18. 38), 
he when called, hears, so as to relieve, etc. 


de 


230 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§§ 274-276. 


5. Exclamatory Infinitive. 


274. The Infinitive, with subject-accusative, may be 
used in Exclamations (cf. § 240. d) : as, — 


té in tantas aerumnas propter mé incidisse (Fam. xiv. 1), alas! that you 
should have fallen into such grief for me. 
7 méne inceptd. désistere victam (AEn. i. 37), what! 1 beaten desist from my 
purpose ? 


Nore. — The Present and the Perfect Infinitive are used in this con- 
struction with their ordinary distinction of time. 


6. Historical Infinitive. 


275. (RuLeE 61.) The Infinitive is often used for the 
Imperfect Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in 
the nominative : as, — 

tum Catilina pollicéri novas tabulas (Sall. Cat. 21), then Catiline prom- 

ised abolition of debts (clean ledgers). 

ego instare ut mihi respondéret (Verr. ii. 188), 7 kept urging him to 

answer me. 

pars cédere, alii insequi; neque signa neque Ordinés servare ; ubi quemque 

periculum céperat, ibi resistere 4c proépulsare, arma, téla, equi, viri, 
hostés atque civés permixti, nihil consilid neque imperid agi; fors 
omnia regere (Jug. 51), a part give way, others press on; they hold 
neither to standards nor ranks ; where danger overtook, there each would 
stand and fight ; arms, weapons, horses, men, foe and friend, mingled 
in confusion ; nothing went by counsel or command ; chance ruled all. 


Note. — This construction is not strictly zstorica/, but rather descriptive, 
and is never used to state a mere historical fact. 


TENSES. 


I. TENSES OF INCOMPLETE ACTION. 
1. Present (General Use). 


276. The Present Tense denotes an action or state (1) 
as now taking place or’ existing; and so (2) as tucomplete 
in present time, or (3) as zwdefinite, referring to no par- 
ticular time, but denoting a general truth. Thus, — 


§ 276.] PRESENT AND HISTORICAL PRESENT. 231 


senatus haec intellegit, consul videt, hic tamen vivit (Cat. i. 2), the Senate 
knows this, the consul sees it, yet this man lives. 

tibi concédd meas sédés (Div. i. 104), 7 give you my seat (an offer 
which may or may not be accepted). 

obsequium amicés, véritas odium parit (Ter. And. 68), flattery gains 
Sriends, truth hatred. [General truth.] 


a. The Present, with expressions of duration of time, especially 


iam dit, jam dtdum, denotes an a Ontinuing in the present, 


but begun in the past (cf. § 277. 4): as,— 
té iam dudum hortor (Cat. i. 12), 7 have long urged you. 
patimur iam multds annés (Verr. v. 126), we suffer now these many years. 
[The perfect would imply, we xo longer suffer.] 








Nore 1.— In this use the present is commonly to be rendered by the 
perfect in English. 

NOTE 2. — Similarly the Present Imperative with iam didum indicates 
that the action commanded ought to have been done or was wished for long 
ago (cf. the Perfect Imperative in Greek) : as, — 

iam diidum simite poenas (Ain. ii. 103), exact the penalty long delayed. 


é. The Present sometimes denotes an action attempted or begun 
in present time, but never completed (Conative Present, cf. § 277.¢): 
as, — 

iam iamque mani tenet (Ain. ii. 530), and now, even now, he attempts 

to grasp him. . 

dénsos fertur in hostis (id. 511), he starts towrush into the thickest of the 

foe. Nate pa 

décernd quinquaginta diérum supplicatidnés (Phil. xiv. 29), Zmove for fifty 

days thanksgiving. (Cf. senatus décrévit, the senate ordained.| 

c. The Present, especially in colloquial language and poetry, is 
often used for the Future : as, — 

imusne séssum (De Or. iii. 17), shall we take a seat (are we going to sit) ? 

haud mito factum (Ter. And. 40), 7 do not wish to change it (I am not 

trying to change). 

hodié uxdrem diicis (id. 321), ave you to be married to-day ? 

sI pereO hominum manibus periisse iuvabit (Ain. iii. 606), if 7 perish, it 

will be pleasant to perish at the hands of men (cf. § 307. a. note). 


2. Historical Present. 


da. The Present in lively narrative is often used for the Historical 
Perfect (Historical Present) : as, — 


232 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 277. 


affertur niintius Syraciisads ; curritur ad praetdrium ; Cleomenés, quam- 
quam nox erat, tamen in publicd esse non audet; inclidit sé domi 
(Verr. v. 92), the news is brought to Syracuse; they run to head- 
quarters ; Cleomenes, though it was night, does not venture to be 
abroad ; he shuts himself up at home. 
Nore. — This usage, common in all languages, comes from imagining 
past events as going on before our eyes (7epfraesentatio). 


3. Present with dum. 


é. Dum, whi/e, regularly takes the Present Indicative in reference 
to past events. 

In translating, the English Imperfect must generally be used. 
Thus, — 

hdc dum narrat, forte audivi (Ter. Heaut. 272), 7 happened to hear this 
while she was telling it. 

Norte. — A past tense with dum (usually so dong as) makes the time em- 
phatic by contrast. But a few irregular cases of dum with a past tense 
occur where no contrast is intended. Thus,— 

nec enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum vidébatis (Cat. Maj. 79), 
while I was with you, you could n’t seemy soul. {Here the time when 
he was alive is contrasted with that after his death.] 

coorta est piigna, par dum constabant ordinés (Liv. xxii. 47), @ conflict 
began, well matched as long as the ranks stood firm. 

But— dum inum adscendere gradum cénatus est, vénit in periculum 
(Mur. 55), while he attempted to climb one step [in rank] he fell into 
danger. 

yj. The present is regularly used in quoting writers whose works 
are extant: as, — 


Epicirus véro ea dicit (Tusc. ii. 17), dut Epicurus says such things. 


4. Imperfect. 


277. The Imperfect denotes an action or a state as 
continued or repeated in past time : as, — 


Sdcratés ita cénsébat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 72), Socrates thought so 
(habitually), axd so he spoke (then). 
iamque rubéscébat Aurora (Ain. iii. 521), and now the dawn was blushing. 
Note. — The Imperfect is a descriptive tense and denotes an action con- 
ceived as iz progress or a state of things as actually observed. Hence in 
many verbs it does not differ in meaning from the Perfect. Thus réx erat 


§ 277.] IMPERFECT. 233 


and réx fuit may often be used indifferently; but the former describes the 
condition while the latter only states it. The English is less exact in dis- 
tinguishing these two modes of statement. Hence the Latin Imperfect is 
often translated by the English Preterite. Thus, — 

Aedui graviter ferébant, neque légatds ad Caesarem mittere audébant 
(B. G. v. 6), the dui were displeased and did not dare, etc. [Here + 
the Imperfects describe the state of things.] But — 

id tulit factum graviter Indutiomarus (id. v. 4), /wdutiomarus was dis- 
pleased, etc. [Here the Perfect merely states the fact.] 

aedificia vicdsque habébant (id. iv. 4), they had buildings and villages. 


REMARK. — The Imperfect represents a present tense transferred to 
past time. Hence all the meanings which the present has derived from the 
continuance of the action belong also to the imperfect in reference to past 
time (see details below). 


a. The Imperfect is used in descriptions: as, — 


erant omnino itinera duo... mé6ns altissimus impendébat (B. G. i. 6), 
there were in all two ways ...a very high mountain overhung. 


6. With iam dit, iam dtidum, and other expressions of duration 
of time, the Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the past but 
begun at some previous time (cf. § 115. @. 2): as, — 


iam didum flébam (Ov. M. iii. 656), 7 Aad been weeping for a long time. 
cOpias quas dia comparabant (Fam. xi. 13. 5), the forces which they had 
long been getting ready. 
Nore. — In this construction the Imperfect is rendered by the English 
Pluperfect. Compare the Present in similar phrases (§ 276. a). 


c. The Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun (/ncepiive 
Imperfect), or as attempted or only intended (Conative Imperfect) 
(cf. § 276. 6): Gs; — 

in exsilium éiciébam quem iam ingressum esse in bellum vidébam (Cat. 

ii. 14), was [ sending (i.e. trying to send) zxzo exile one who I saw had 
already gone into war ? 

hunc igitur diem sibi propdnéns Milo, cruentis manibus ad illa augusta 

centuriarum auspicia veniébat (Mil. 43), was Milo coming (i.e. was it 
likely that he would come), etc. ? 

iamque arva tenébant iiltima (En. vi. 477), azd now they were just getting 

to the farthest fields. 








ad. The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise at the 
present discovery of a fact already existing : as, — 


O ti quoque aderas (Ter. Ph. 858), of ! you are here too. 


234 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [$§ 278, 279. 


é. The Imperfect is often used in dialogue where we should 
expect the Perfect : as, — 
ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hic suam (Plaut. Trin. 
956), to his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted his 
property. 
Nore. — So also, in conversation, the imperfect of verbs of saying (cf. 
as I was a-saying): as,— 
at medici quoque, itaenim dicébas, saepe falluntur (N. a: ili. 15), for 
that was what you were saying just now. 
jf. For the Imperfect in apodosis contrary to fact, see § 308. b. 
g. The Imperfect with negative words often has the force of the 
English auxiliary could or would: as, — 
itaque (Damoclés) nec pulchrés ill6s ministratorés adspiciébat (Tusc. v. 
62), therefore he could not look upon those beautiful slaves. [In this 
case did not would not express the idea of continued prevention of 
enjoyment by the overhanging sword. ] 
nec enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum vidébatis (Cat. Maj. 79) 
Sor, you know, while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here 
the Perfect would refer only to one moment. 


5. Future. 


278. The Future denotes an action or state that will 
occur hereafter. 


a. The Future sometimes has the force of an Imperative (see 
§ 269. f). 

6. The Future is often required in a subordinate clause in Latin 
where in English futurity is sufficiently shown by the main clause : 
as, — 

cum aderit vidébit, when he is there he will see (cf. § 325. c). 

sanabimur si volémus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish. 


II. THE TENSES OF COMPLETED ACTION. 


: 1. Perfect. 

279. The Perfect denotes an action either as xow com- 
pleted (Perfect Definite),.or as having taken place at some 
undefined point of past time (Hzstorical or Aoristic Per- 
fect). Thus, — 


§ 279.] PERFECT. 235 


(1) ut ego féci, qui Graecas litteras senex didici (Cat. Maj. 26), as 7 have 
done, who have learned Greek in my old age. 

(2) tantum bellum extrema hieme apparavit, ineunte vére suscépit, media 
aestate confécit (Man. 35), so great a war he made ready for at the 
end of winter, undertook in early spring, and finished by midsummer. 


Nore. — The distinction between these two uses of the perfect, though 
almost if not wholly lost to the minds of the Romans, must be noticed, on 
account of the marked distinction in English (see also § 115. ¢). 


a. The perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that a 
thing or condition of things that once existed no longer exists: as, — 


fuit ista quondam in hac ré publica virttis (Cat.i. 3), there was once such 
virtue in this commonwealth. 

habuit, non habet (Tusc. i. 87), Ze had, he has no longer. 

fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (Ain. ii. 325), we have ceased to be Trojans, Troy 
is no more. 


6. The Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general 
truth (§ 276), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause referring 
to time antecedent to that of the main clause: as, — 


qui in compedibus corporis semper fuérunt, etiam cum soliti sunt tardius 
ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 75), they who have always been in the fetters of 
the body, even when released move more slowly. 


c. The perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, especially 
with negatives (Guomic Perfect): as, — 


nOn aeris acervus et auri dédixit corpore febrés (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 47), the 
pile of brass and gold removes not fever from the frame. 


Nore. — The gnomic perfect strictly refers to past time; but its use 
implies that something which never did happen in any known case, never 
does happen, and never will (cf. the English “Faint heart never won fair 
lady”); or without a negative that what “as once happened will always 
happen under similar circumstances. 


@. The Perfect is often used in expressions containing or implying 
a negation, where in affirmation the Imperfect would be preferred : 
as, — 
dicébat melius quam scripsit Horténsius (Or. 132), Hortensius spoke better 
than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison.] 


é. The completed tenses of some verbs are equivalent to the 
incomplete tenses of verbs of kindred meaning. 


236 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [$§ 280, 281. 


Such are the preteritive verbs Gdi, 7 ate; memini, / rememéer ; 
novi J know; cOnsuévi, J am accustomed,’ with others sometimes 
used preteritively, as vénerat (— aderat, he was at hand, etc.) (see § 
143. note). Thus, — 

qui diés aestiis maximos efficere cénsuévit (B.G. iv. 29), which day 

generally makes the highest tides (is accustomed to make). 

ciiius splendor obsolévit (Quinc. 68), whose splendor is now all faded 

(has become old). 

REMARK. — Many other verbs are occasionally so used: as, — 

dum oculds certamen dverterat (Liv. xxxii. 24), while the contest had 

turned their eyes (kept them turned). [Here averterat = tenébat. | 


2. Pluperfect. 


280. The Pluperfect is used (1) to denote an action or 
state completed in past time ; or (2) sometimes to denote 
an action in indefinite time, but prior to some past time 
referred to : as, — 


(1) loci natiira erat haec, quem locum nostri castris délégerant (B. G. ii. 18), 
this was the nature of the ground our men had chosen for a camp. 
Viridovix summam imperi tenébat edrum omnium civitatum quae défé- 
cerant (id. iii..17), Viridovix held the chief command of all those tribes 
which had revolted. : 
(2) neque vér6 cum aliquid mandaverat cdnfectum putabat (Cat. iii. 16), dzt 
when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as done. 
quae si quando adepta est id quod ei fuerat concupitum, tum fert alacri- 
tatem (Tusc. iv. 35), #f zt (desire) ever has gained what it had [previ- 
ously] desired, then it produces joy. 


3. Future Perfect. 


281. The Future Perfect denotes an action as com 
pleted in the future : as, — 


ut sémentem féceris, ita metés (De Or. ii. 261), as you sow (shall have 
sown), so shall you reap. 

carmina tum melius cum vénerit ipse canémus (Ecl. ix. 67), then shall 
we sing our songs better, when he himself has come. 

ego certé meum officium praestiterd (B.G. iv. 25), Z at least shall have 
done my duty (i.e. when the time comes to reckon up the matter, I 
shall be found to have done it, whatever the event). 


1 Cf. détestor, reminiscor, scid, soled. 


§§ 282-285. ] SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 237 


REMARK. — The Future Perfect is used with much greater exactness in 
Latin than in English, and may even be used instead of the Future, from 
the fondness of the Latins for representing an action as completed : as, — 


quid inventum sit pauld post viderd (Acad. ii. 76), what has been found 
out [ will see presently. 


III. EpisTOLARY TENSES. 


282. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imper- 
fect may be used for the present, and the Pluperfect for 
any past tense, as if the letter were dated at the time it 
is supposed to be recezved: as, — 


neque tamen, cum haec scribébam, eram nescius quantis oneribus pre- 
merére (Fam. v. 12, 2), zor while I write this am I ignorant under 
what burdens you are weighed down. 


‘- IV. TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 


283. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Independent 
Clauses denote time in relation to the time of the speaker. 
The Present always refers to future (or indefinite) time, 
the Imperfect to either past or present, the Perfect to 
either future or past, the Pluperfect always to past. 


* 284. In Dependent Clauses the tenses of the Subjunc- 
tive were habitually used in certain fixed connections de- 
termined by the time of the main verb and the time of 
the dependent verb together. 


Sequence of Tenses. 


‘a 285. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent 
clauses follow special rules for the SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 
With reference to these rules all tenses when used in 
Independent clauses are divided into two classes, —primary 
and secondary. 


238 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 286. 


1. Primary. The primary tenses include all forms that express 
present or future time. These are the Present, Future, and Future 
Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the 
Present and Future Imperative. 


Nore. — The Perfect Definite is sometimes treated as primary, but see 
§ 287. a. 


_ 2. SECONDARY. The secondary tenses include all forms that 
refer to fast time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect 
Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the His- 
torical Infinitive. 


NoTE. — To these may be added certain forms less commonly used in 
Independent Clauses. Such are (1) Primary: Present Infinitive in Ex- 
clamations ; (2) Secondary: Perfect Infinitive in Exclamations (see § 287. 
a. note). 


od 


* 
4 


\) 286. (RULE 62.) In complex sentences a Primary tense 
in the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect 
in the dependent clause, and a Secondary tense by the 
Imperfect or Pluperfect : as, — 


scribit ut nds moneat, he writes to warn us. 
scribet ut nds moneat, he will write to warn us. 
scribe (scribit6) ut nds moneas, wrzte that you may warn us. 
scripsit ut nds monéret; he wrote to warn us. 
»  scribit quasi oblitus sit, he writes as if he had forgotten. 
| scripsit quasi oblitus esset, he wrote as if he had forgotten. 
i rogo quid factiirus sis 7 ask what you are going to do. 
N\ Note. — This rule affects only the tenses of the Subjunctive in de- 
pendent clauses. The tenses of the other moods and those of the Sub- 
junctive in independent constructions (as in apodosis contrary to fact, § 308) 
are not affected by the sequence of tenses. (But cf. §§ 338. note 2, 339. 
note 2.) 


REMARK. — In applying the rule for the sequence of tenses, observe (1) 
whether the main verb is (a) primary or (4) secondary, (2) whether the de- 
pendent verb is to denote completed action (ze. past with reference to the 
main verb), or incomplete (é.e. present or future with reference to the main” 
verb). Then— 

(a) If the leading verb is primary, the dependent verb must be in the 
Present if it denotes zxcomplete action, in the Perfect if it denotes completed 
action. 


§ 287.] SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 239 


(4) If the leading verb is secondary, the dependent verb must be in the 
Imperfect if it denotes ‘zcomplete action, in the Pluperfect if it denotes 
completed action. Thus, — 

he writes (primary) 4o warn (incomplete) ws, scribit ut nds moneat. 

Z ask (primary) what you were doing (now past), rogo quid féceris. 

Notice that the “ture Perfect denotes action completed (at the time 
referred to), and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Perfect or 
Pluperfect. Thus, — 

Lask what you will have accomplished, rogs quid perféceris. 

he asked what he would have accomplished, rogavit quid perfécisset. 


287. In the Sequence of Tenses some special points 
are to be noted :— 


a. The Perfect Indicative is ordinarily a secondary tense, but 
allows the primary sequence when the present time is clearly in the 
writer’s mind. Thus, — 

ut satis esset praesidi prévisum est (Cat. ii. 26), provision has been 

made that there should be ample guard. [Secondary sequence. | 
addixi hominem in qu6 satisfacere exteris natidnibus possétis (Verr. i. 2), 
L have brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction to 
Soreign nations. [Secondary sequence. ] 

ea adhibita doctrina est quae vel vitidsissimam natiiram excolere possit 
(Q. Fr. i. 1, 7), such instruction has been given as can train even the 
Jaultiest nature. [Primary sequence. ] 

Nore. — The Perfect Infinitive in Exclamations follows the same rule: 
as, — 

adedn rem redisse patrem ut extiméscam (Ter. Ph. 153), 20 think that 

things have come to such a pass that I should dread my father. 

6. After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used 
to denote any past action, and may represent — 

1. A Perfect Definite : as, — 

non dubitd quin omnés tui scripserint (Fam. v. 8), Z do not doubt that all 

your friends have written. [Direct statement: scripsérunt.] 

quaré non igndrd quid accidat @™ iltimis terris, cum audierim in Italia 

querélas civium (Q. Fr. i. 1, 33), therefore I know well what happens 
at the ends of the earth, when I have heard in Italy the complaints of 
citizens. [In a direct statement, audivi.] 

2. A Perfect Historical : as, — 

mé autem hic laudat quod retulerim, non quod patefécerim (Att. xii. 21), 

me he praises because I brought the matter [before the senate], not 
because I brought it to light. (Direct statement : retulit.] 


240 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 287. 


"Si An Imperfect : as, — 


si forte ceciderint tum intellegitur quam fuerint inopés amicérum (Lzl. 
53), #f by chance they fall (have fallen), then one can see how poor 
they were in friends. [Direct question : quam inopés erant ?] 

qui status rérum fuerit cum his litteras dedi scire poteris ex C. Tidid 
Strabone (Fam. xii. 6), what the state of affairs was when I wrote 
this letter, you can learn from Strabo. [Direct question : qui erat?] 


NoTE.— Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Per- 
fect Definite ora Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, but an 
Imperfect as well. This comes from the want of any special tense of the 
subjunctive to express continued action after a primary tense. Thus, miror 
quid fécerit may mean (1) 7 wonder what he has done, (2) wonder what he 
did (hist. perf.), or (3) 7 wonder what he was doing. 


c. In clauses of Result, the Perfect Subjunctive is very often (the 
Present rarely) used after secondary tenses : as, — 


Horténsius ardébat dicendi cupiditate sic ut nill6 unquam flagrantius 
studium viderim (Brut. 302), Hortensius was so hot with desire of 
Speaking that I have never seen a more burning ardor in any man. 

Siciliam Verrés per triennium ita véxavit ac perdidit, ut ea restitui in 
anticum statum nill6 modo possit (Verr. i. 12), for three years Verres 
so racked and ruined Sicily, that she can in no way be restored to her 
Jormer state. [Here the Present describes a state of things actually 
existing. | 


REMARK. — This construction emphasizes the result; the regular con- 
struction subordinates it. 


Norte. — There is a special fondness for the Perfect Subjunctive to 
represent a Perfect Indicative. Thus, — 


Thorius erat ita non superstitidsus ut illa plirima in sua patria et sacri- 
ficia et fana contemneret; ita ndn timidus ad mortem ut in acié sit 
ob rem piblicam interfectus (Fin. ii. 63), Zhorius was so little super- 
stitious that he despised [contemnébat] the many sacrifices and shrines 
in his country; so little timorous about death that he was killed 
[interfectus est] i battle, in defence of the State. 

Zén6 nilld modé is erat qui nervGs virtiitis incideret (cf. § 279. d) ; sed 
contra qui omnia in iina virtiite poneret (Acad. i. 35), Zezo was by no 
means one to cut the sinews of virtue; but one, on the contrary, who 
made everything depend on virtue alone. [incidit . . . ponébat.] 


d. A general truth after a past tense follows the sequence of 
tenses : as, — 


§ 287.] SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 241 


ex his quae tribuisset sibi quam miitabilis esset reputabat (Q. C. iii. 8, 20), 
from what she (Fortune) had bestowed on him, he reflected how incon- 
stant she is. [Direct : mitabilis est.] 

ibi quantam vim ad stimuland6s animOs ira habéret apparuit (Liv. xxxiii. 
37), here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. [Direct : 
habet. ] 


Nore. — In English the original tense is more commonly kept. 


e. The Historical Present (§ 276. @) is sometimes felt as a Arimary, 
sometimes as a secondary tense. Accordingly it is followed by either 
the primary or the secondary sequence, more commonly by the sec- 
ondary. Thus, — 

rogat ut ciret quod dixisset (Quinct. 18), he asks him to attend to the thing 

he had spoken of. 

castella comminit qué facilius prohibére posset (B. G. i. 8), he strengthens 

the forts that he might more easily keep them off. 


Norte. — After the historical present, cum temporal with the subjunctive 
must follow the secondary sequence. 


jf. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in conditions contrary to fact 
(§ 308) are not affected by the sequence of tenses : as, — 


quia tale sit, ut vel si ignérarent hominés, etc. (Fin. ii. 49), because it is 
such that even if men WERE ignorant, etc. 


g. The Imperfect Subjunctive in present conditions contrary to 
fact (§ 308) is regularly followed by the secondary sequence : as, — 


si alii consulés essent, ad té potissimum, Paulle, mitterem, ut eds mihi 
quam amicissimGs redderés (Fam. xv. 13), if there were other consuls, 
I should send to you, Paulus, in preference to all, that you might make 
them as friendly to me as possible. 

si eds dicerés miserds quibus moriendum esset, néminem exciperés (Tusc. 
i. 9), 2f you called those wretched who must die, you would except no 
one. : 


A. The Present is sometimes followed by a secondary sequence, 
seemingly because the writer is thinking of past time (Symeszs) : as, — 
sed tamen ut scirés haec tibi scribd (Fam. xiii. 47), dut yet that you may 
know, I write thus. [As if he had used the common epistolary im- 
perfect scribébam (§ 282).] 
cilius praecepti tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed Delphicéd ded 
tribuerétur (Leg. i. 58), such is the force of this precept, that it was 
ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god. [The precept was 
an old one.] 


242 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 288. 


Nore. — The rules for the sequence of tenses must not be regarded as 
inflexible. They were often disregarded by the Romans themselves, either 
from carelessness or purposely for one reason or another. 


z. When a clause depends upon one already dependent, the 
sequence becomes secondary as soon as the time is thrown back into 
the past by any form that represents past time: as, — 

tantum profécisse vidémur ut 4 Graecis né verborum quidem copia vince- 
rémur (N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in 
Sulness of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks. 

But — beaté vixisse videor quia cum Scipione vixerim (Lzl. 15), 7 
seem to have lived happily in that I have lived with Scipio (who had 
just died). 

NoTE.— For the application of this rule to Indirect Discourse, see 

§ 336. B. note. 


V. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 


288. (RULE 63.) The Tenses of the Infinitive denote 
present, past, or future time, relatively to the time of the 
verb off which they depend : as, — 

nostrds non esse inferidrés intelléxit (B. G. ii. 8), he ascertained that our 

men were not inferior. [Direct : sunt.] 

quam Iiind fertur terris magis omnibus coluisse (Ain. i. 15), which Juno 

is said to have cherished above all lands. (Direct: colébat.] 


spérant sé maximum friictum esse captirés (Lzl. 79), they hope they shall 
receive the greatest advantage. [Direct : capiémus. | 


a. With past tenses of verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility 
(as potui, débui, and oportuit) the Present infinitive must be ren- 
dered by the Perfect infinitive in English ; as, — 

scire potuit (Milo, 46), he might have known. 

qui vidébatur omnind mori ndn débuisse (Arch. 17), who seemed [one 

that] ought not to have died at all. 


6. For the tenses of the infinitive in Indirect Discourse, see 
§ 336. A. 

c. Except in indirect discourse, the Present is the only tense of the 
infinitive in common use. It has no distinct reference to time. Thus,— 


est aduléscentis maidrés nati veréri (Off. i. 122), ¢¢ zs [the duty] of a 
youth to reverence his elders. 


§ 288.] NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS. 243 


da. With verbs of wishing, necessity, and the like, the Perfect 
Passive infinitive is often used instead of the Present : as, — 
quod iam pridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 5), which ought to have 
been done long ago (cf. a, above). 


REMARK. — In early and late Latin, and in poetry, rarely in good prose, 
the Perfect Active infinitive is also used instead of the Present, and even 
with other verbs than those of wzshking and the like: as, — 


commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he # cautious of doing. 


é. With verbs of feeding the Perfect infinitive is used, especially 
by the poets, to denote a completed action. 

So also with satis est, satis habeo, melius est, contentus sum, 
and in a few other cases where the distinction of time is important. 
Thus, — 


pudet mé non praestitisse (Fam. xiv. 3), am ashamed not to have shown. 

sunt qu6és curriculd pulverem Olympicum collégisse iuvat (Hor. Od. i. 
I. 3), there are those who delight, etc. 

quiésse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), ¢¢ w7// be better to have kept quiet. 


Jf. The Future infinitive is often expressed by fore (or futtirum 
esse) ut with the subjunctive ; so necessarily in verbs which have 
no supine stem (cf. §§ 302. Rem., 332. ¢). Thus, — 


spéro fore ut contingat id nobis (Tusc. i. 82), 7 hope that will be our 
happy lot. 


Il. NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS. 


The several Noun and Adjective forms associated with the verb are 
employed as follows : — 
. Attributive (§ 291 and iy: 
. Simple Predicate (§ 291. 4). 
. Periphrastic Perfect (pass.) (§ 291.R). 


I 
(x. Present and : 
4. Predicate of Circumstance (§ 292). 
5 
I 
2 


Perfect: 


. Descriptive (Ind. Discourse) (§292. ¢). 
. Periphrastic with esse (§ 293. a). 
. Periphrastic with fui (= Pluperfect 
Subjunctive) (§ 293. ¢). 
1. As Descriptive Adjective (§ 294. a). 
| ¢. Gerundive: + 2. Periphrastic with esse (§ 294. 4). 
3. Of Purpose with verbs (§294. d). 


I. PARTICIPLES :4 
6. Future: 





| 
| 
l 


1 Chiefly vold, ndld, malé, oportet, decet. 


244 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [$§ 289, 290. 


1. Genitive as Objective Genitive (§ 298). 
2. Dative, with Adjectives, Nouns, Verbs (§ 299). 
3. Accusative, with certain Prepositions (§ 300). 
4. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions 
(§ 301.) 
-{ 1. Former Supine (in -um),with Verbs of Motion (§ 302). 
2. Latter Supine (in -i), chiefly with Adjectives (§ 303). 


2. GERUND or 
GERUNDIVE: 


3. SUPINE: 


PARTICIPLES. 


289. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in 
the form of an Adjective ; but has a partial distinction of 
tense, and may govern a case. 

Nore. — Thus the participle combines all the functions of an adjective 
with some of the functions of a verb. As an adjective, it limits substan- 


tives, and agrees with them in gender, number, and case (§ 186). As a 
verb, it has distinctions of time (§ 290), and often takes an object. 


1. Distinctions of Tense. 


290. (RULE 64.) Participles denote time as present, past, 
or future with respect to the time of the verb in their 
clause. 

Thus the Present Participle represents the action as zz progress 


at the time indicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as com- 
pleted, and the Future as s¢z// to take place. 
a. The Present Participle has several of the special uses of the 
Present Indicative. Thus it may denote — 
1. An action continued in the present but begun in the past 
(§ 276. a): as, — 
quaerenti mihi iamdiii certa rés nilla veniébat in mentem (Fam. iv. 13), 
though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind. 
2. Attempted action (§ 276. 4): as, — 
C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividenti (Cat. Maj. 11), he resisted 
Flaminius when attempting to divide the Picene territory. 
3. Futurity (§ 276. c) : as, — 
iéns in Pompéianum bene mane haec scripsi (Att. iv. 9), 7 write this 
when about going very early to my place at Pompeii. 


§ 290.] DISTINCTIONS OF TENSE. 245 


&. The Perfect Participle of a few deponent verbs is used nearly 
in the sense of a Present. 

So, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus; commonly, fisus, ausus, 
secitus, and occasionally others, especially in later writers. Thus, — 

cohortatus milités docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men, he showed. 

iratus dixisti (Mur. 62), you spoke in a passion: : 

oblitus auspicidrum (Phil. i. 31), forgetting the auspices. 

insidias veritus (B. G. ii. 11), fearing ambuscade. 

c. The Latin has no Present Participle in the passive. The place 
of such a form is supplied usually by a clause with dum or cum, 
rarely by the participle in -dus: as, — 

nillis Evidentibus causis obiére dum calceantur matiitind duo Caesarés 

(Plin. N. H. vii. 181), from no obvious cause two Caesars died while 
having their shoes put on in the morning. 

méque ista délectant cum Latiné dicuntur (Acad. i. 13), those things 

please me when they are spoken in Latin. 

crucibus adfixi aut flammandi (Tac. Ann. xv. 44), crucified or set on fire 

(in flames). 

Note. — The constructions with dum and cum are often used when a 
participle might be employed : as, — 

dic, hospes, Spartae, nds té hic vidisse iacentés, dum sanctis patriae légi- 

bus obsequimur, ¢e// zt, stranger, at Sparta, that you saw us lying here 
obedient to our country’s sacred laws. [Here dum obsequimur is a 
translation of the Greek present participle wec@dpuevor. | 


d@. The Latin has no Perfect Participle in the active voice. The 
deficiency is supplied — 
1. In deponents by the perfect passive form with its regular active 
meaning : as, — 
nam singulas [navés] nostri consectati expiignavérunt (B. G. iii. 15), for 
our men having overtaken them one by one, captured them by boarding. 
2. In other verbs, by the ablative absolute with a change of voice 
(§ 255. @ note) or by a clause (especially with cum or dum) : as, — 
itaque convocatis centuriénibus milités certidrés facit (B. G. tii. 5), and so, 
having called the centurions together, he informs the soldiers (the cen- 
turions having been called together). 
cum vénisset animadvertit collem (id. vii. 44), having come (when he had 
come), he noticed a hill. 


Norte. — The perfect participle of several deponent verbs may be either 
active or passive in meaning (§ 135. 4). 


246 _ SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 201. 


2. Adjective Use. 


291. The Present and Perfect participles are used 
sometimes as attributive, nearly like adjectives : as, — 


cum antiquissimam sententiam tum comprobatam (Div. i. 11), @ view at 
once most ancient and well approved. 

signa nunquam feré émentientia (id. 15), signs hardly ever deceitful. 

auspiciis tituntur codctis (id. 27), they use forced auspices. 


a. Participles often become complete adjectives, and may be com- 
pared or used as nouns. Thus, — 


quo mulieri esset rés cautior (Czecin. 11), that the matter might be more 
secure for the woman. 

in illis artibus praestantissimus (De Or. i. 217), preéminent in those arts. 

sibi indulgentés et corpori déservientés (Leg. i. 39), the self-indulgent, and 
slaves to the body (indulging themselves and serving the body). 

male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. ii. 65), ¢//-got, i//-spent (things ill- 
acquired, etc.). 

consuétid6 valentis (De Or. ii. 186), the habit of a man in health. 


6. Participles are often used as Predicate Adjectives. As such 
they may be joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb (see 
§§ 186. 6, 176. a): as, — 


Gallia est divisa (B. G. i. 1), Gaul is divided. 
locus qui nunc saeptus est (Liv. i. 8), the place which is now enclosed. 


REMARK. — From this predicate use arise the compound tenses of the 
passive, — the participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of 
esse developing the idea of past time: as interfectus est, e was (or has 
been) 4illed, lit. he is having-been-killed (i.e. already slain). 


In the best writers (as Cicero), the perfect participle, when used with 
fui, etc., retains its proper force; but in later writers the two sets of tenses 
(as amatus sum or fui), are often used indiscriminately to form the tenses 
of the perfect system in the passive: as, — 


arma quae fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div. i. 74), the 
arms which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the 
ground. [Cf. occupati sunt et fuérunt (Off. i. 57), ave and have been 
engaged. ‘The difference between this and arma quae, etc., is, that 
occupatus in this sense is used only as an adjective.] 


§ 292.] PREDICATE USE. 247 


3. Predicate Use. 


292. The Present and Perfect participles are often used 
as a predicate, where in English a phrase or clause would 
be usual. 

In this use the participles express time, cause, occasion, 
condition, concession, characteristic (or description), manner, 
means, attendant circumstances. Thus, — 


volventés hostilia cadavera amicum reperiébant (Sall. Cat. 61), while 
rolling over the corpses of the enemy they found a friend. [Time.] 

paululum commoratus, signa canere iubet (Sall. Cat. 59,1), after delaying 
a little while, he orders to give the signal. [Time.] 

longius prosequi veritus, ad Cicerdnem pervénit (B. G. v. 52), because he 
feared to follow further, he came to Cicero. [Cause.] 

qui sciret laxas dare iiissus habénas (Ain. i. 63), who might know how 
to give them loose rein when bidden. [Occasion.] 

damnatum poenam sequi oportébat (B. G. i. 4), if condemned, punishment 
must overtake him. (Condition.] 

saliitem inspérantibus reddidisti (Marc. 21), you have restored a safety 
which we did not hope. (Concession. ] 

Dardanius caput ecce puer détéctus (Ain. x. 133), the Trojan boy with 
his head uncovered: [Description.] 

nec trepidés in tisum poscentis aevi pauca (Hor. Od. ii. r1. 5), de not 
anxious for the needs of age that demands little. [Characteristic.] 

incitati fuga montés altissimds petébant (B. C. iii. 93), iz headlong flight 
they made for the highest mountains. [Manner.] 

milités sublevati alii ab aliis magnam partem itineris cdnficerent (B. C. 
i. 68), the soldiers helped up by each other, etc. [Means.] 

hoc laudans, Pompéius idem iiravit (B. C. iii. 87), approving this, Pom- 
pey took the same oath. [Attendant circumstance. ] 

aut sedéns aut ambulans disputabam (Tusc. i. 7), 7 conducted the dis- 
cussion either sitting or walking. [Circumstance.] 


REMARK. — These uses are especially frequent in the ablative absolute 
(§ 255.@). A co-ordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect 
participle ; as, — 


instrictés Srdinés in locum aecum dédiicit (Sall. Cat. 59), he draws up 
the lines, and leads them to level ground. 

ut hos transdiictés necaret (B. G. v. 6), that he might carry them over 
and put them to death. ; 


248 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 292. 


Nore. 1.—A participle with a negative often expresses the same idea 
which in English is given by without and a verbal noun: as, — 
miserum est nihil proficientem angi (N. D. iii. 14), # is wretched to vex 
oneself without effecting anything. 
NoTE 2.— Acceptum and expénsum as predicates with ferre and referre 
are book-keeping terms : as, — 
quas peciinias ferébat eis expénsas (Verr. ii. 170), what sums he charged 
to them. 


a. A noun and a passive participle are often so united that the 
participle and not the noun contains the main idea :1! as, — 

ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), defore the city was built 

or building. : 

illi libertatem civium ROmanorum imminiitam non tulérunt; vos vitam 

- 6reptam neglegétis (Manil. 11), they did not endure the infringement 
of the citizens’ liberty ; will you disregard the destruction of their life ? 
post hominés natds (Brut. 224), sesece the creation of man. 

iam 4 condita urbe (Phil. iii. 9), even from the founding of the city. 

6. The perfect participle with a noun in agreement, or in the neuter 
as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need (cf. 
§ 243. ¢) : as, — 

opus fact est vidticd (Pl. Trin. 887), there is need of laying in provision. 

matiratd opus est (Liv. viii. 13), there is need of haste. 

c. The perfect participle with habed (rarely with other verbs) has 
almost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the con- 
tinued effect of the action of the verb :? as, — 

fidem quam habent spectatam iam et diii cognitam (Div. C. 11), my fidelity, 

which they have proved and long known. 

cohortés in acié lxxx. constitiitas habébat (B.C. iii. 89), Ae had eighty co- 

horts stationed in line of battle. 

nefarids ducés captés iam et comprehénsds tenétis (Cat. iii. 16), you 

have captured and hold in custody the infamous leaders, etc. 


d. A verb of effecting or the like may be used in combination with 
the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that 
verb more forcibly: as, — 


1Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (Goodwin’s 
Greek Grammar, § 1588); and the English, “’T was at the Royal feast for 
Persia won” (Dryden), z.e. for the conquest of Persia, 

2 The perfect with Zave, in modern languages of Latin stock, has grown 
out of this use of habes. 


§ 293-] FUTURE PARTICIPLE. 249 


praefectés suds multi missés fécérunt (Verr. iii. 134), many discharged 

their officers (made dismissed). 

hic transactum reddet omne (Plaut. Capt. 345), 4e will get it all done 

(restore it finished). 

Nore. — Similarly vold (with its compounds) and cupid, with a perfect 
participle without esse (cf. § 288. d. note) : as, — 

mé exciisatum vol6 (Verr. II. i. 103), 7 wish to be excused (1 want myself 

excused, cf. / pray thee have me excused). 

e. With verbs denoting an action of the senses the present participle 
in agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive of 
indirect discourse (§ 336), but expresses the action more vividly: 
as, — 

ut eum ném6 unquam in equG sedentem viderit (Verr. v. 27), so that no 

one ever saw him sitting on a horse. 


4. Future Participle. 


293. The Future Participle (except futtrus and ventiirus) 
is rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by 
later writers. 


a. The future participle is chiefly used with the verb esse (which 
is often omitted) in the active periphrastic conjugation ($79): as, — 





morere, Diagora, nén enim in caelum adscénsirus es (Tusc. i. 111), die, 
Sor you are not likely to rise to heaven. 
spérat adoléscéns dia sé victiirum (Cat. Maj. 68), the young man hopes to 
- live long (that he shall live long). 
4. By later writers and the poets the future participle is also used 
in sa agreement with a substantive to express : — 


. Likelihood or certainty : as, — 

ausus est rem pliis famae habitiram (Liv. ii. 10), he dared a thing which 
would have more repute. 

2. Purpose, intention, or readiness : as, — 

cum leo régem invasirus incurreret (Q. C. viii. 1,14), when a lion rushed 
on to attack the king. 

si peritirus abis (Ain. ii. 675), if you are going away to perish. 

3. Apodosis : as, — 

dedit mihi quantum maximum potuit, datirus amplius si potuisset (Plin. 


Ep. iii. 21), he gave me as much as he could, ready to give me more if 
he had been able. 


250 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 204. 


c. With past tenses of esse, the future participle is often equiva- 
lent to the pluperfect subjunctive (see § 308. 2). 


5. Gerundive (Future Passive Participle). 
f 


NoreE.— The participle in -dus, commonly called the Gerundive, has two 
distinct uses : — 


(1) Its predicate and attribute use as participle or, adjective (§ 294). 
(2) Its use with the meaning of the gerund (§ 296). This may be 
called its gerundive use. ; 
sent 


294. The Gerundive when used as a Participle or an 
Adjective is always passive, denoting ecesstty or propriety. 
In this use the following points are to be observed (a—d). 
al 
a. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect 
participles, in simple agreement with a noun : as, — 





fortem et cOnservandum virum (Mil. 104), a drave man, and worthy to be 
preserved. 
6. The most frequent use of this form is with esse in the second 
(passive) periphrastic conjugation (see § 129) : as, — 
non agitanda rés.erit (Verr. v. 179), will not the thing have to be agitated? 


c. The neuter of the gerundive is occasionally used impersonally 
with an object. The object is in the case regularly governed by the 
verb. Thus, — 

via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. Maj. 6), the way we have to enter. 





Nore. — This use is regular with verbs which take their object in the 
dative or ablative: as, — 
légibus parendum est, the laws must be obeyed. 


d. With verbs signifying to give, deliver, agree for, have, receive, 
undertake, demand, a gerundive in agreement with the object is used 
to express purpose: as, — 

redemptor qui columnam illam condiixerat faciendam (Div. ii. 47), the 

contractor who had undertaken to make that column. [The regular 
construction with this class of verbs.] 

aedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. II. i, 132), Ae had the temple of 

Castor to take care of. 

navés atque onera diligenter adservanda ciirabat (id. v. 146), e took care 

that the ships and cargoes should be kept. 


§§ 295, 296.] GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 251 


GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 


295. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in 
the form of a verbal noun. As a xoum the gerund is itself 
governed by other wofds ; as a verb it may take an object 
in the proper case. Thus, — 


ars bene disserendi et véra ac falsa diiidicandi (De Or. ii. 157), the art of 
discoursing well, and distinguishing the true and false. 


REMARK. — A nominative of the gerund is supplied by the infinitive. 
Thus in the example above, the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing 
if used in the nominative, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and 
diiidicare. 


296. When the Gerund would have an object in the 
accusative, the Gerundive is generally used instead. The 
gerundive agrees with its noun, and takes the case which 
the gerund would have had : as, — 


paratidrés ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readizr to undergo all 
dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, which is itself gov- 
erned by ad. The construction with the gerund would be, ad sub- 
eundum pericula ; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing 
the accusative pericula. ] ; 

exercendae memoriae gratia (Cat. Maj. 38), for the sake of training the 
memory. [Here the gerund construction would be memoriam exer- 
cendi gratia. ] 

plérisque in rébus gerendis tarditas odidsa est (Phil. vi. 7), 2 the con- 
ducting of most business, sloth is odious. 


The following examples illustrate the parallel constructions of 
gerund and gerundive : — 


urbem capiendi 


GEN. consilium f ; 
urbis capiendae 


a a design of taking the city. 
agros colendd 


Dat. dat operam | sa colendis 


he attends to tilling the fields. 


mihi parendum 
pacem petendam 


to obey me. 


Acc. veniunt ad j to seek peace. 


} they come j 


scribend6 epistulas 


ARL. Sook teres scribendis epistulis 


} he spends time in writing letters. 


252. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. — [$§ 297, 298. 


REMARK. — In the gerundive construction the verbs itor, fruor, etc., are 
treated like transitive verbs governing the accusative, as they do in early 
Latin: as, — 

expetuntur divitiae ad perfruendas voluptatés (Off. i. 25), riches are 

sought for the enjoyment of pleasures (for enjoying pleasures). 


297. (RULE 65.) The Gerund and the Gerundive are 
used, in the oblique cases, in many of the constructions 
of nouns. 


1. Genitive. 


298. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is 
used with nouns or adjectivés”€ither as suljective or 06- 


rective genitive : as, — 
zs arcana 


neque cOnsilii habendi neque arma capiendi spatio datd (B. G. iv. 14), 
time being given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms. 
[Objective. ] 

né cOnservandae quidem patriae causa (Off.i. 159), ot even for the sake 
of saving the country. (Originally subjective genitive. ] 

vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. Maj. 72), é¢ zs the best end of living. [Sub- 
jective. ] 





Note. — In a few phrases the Infinitive is used with nouns which 
ordinarily have the genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive. Thus tempus est 
abire, z¢ zs time to depart. 


REMARK. — The genitive of the gerund or gerundive is used (especially 
in early and late Latin) as a predicate genitive. When so used it often 
expresses purpose : as, — 


quae rés évertendae reipiiblicae solent esse (Verr. iii. 132), things which 
generally tend to the overthrow of the commonwealth. 

si arborum trunci déiciendi operis essent missae (B. G. iv. 17), é case 
trunks of trees should be sent down [with the object] of overthrowing 
the work. [Pred. gen. like quas sui commodi fécerat (v. 8).] 


a. The genitive of the Gerund is occasionally limited by a noun or 
pronoun (especially sui) in the objective genitive instead of taking a 
direct object : as, — 


&ius videndi cupidus (Ter. Hec. 372), eager to see her (for a seeing of her). 

réiciendi trium ifidicum potestas (Verr. ii. 77), the power of challenging 
three jurors (of the rejecting of three jurors). 

sui colligendi facultas (B. G. iii. 6), the opportunity to recover themselves. 


§§ 299, 300.] DATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE. 253 


4. In genitive constructions the Gerund and Gerundive are about 
equally common. 

c. The genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive is used with causa or 
gratia to denote purpose (see § 318). 

Note. — This is merely a special use under the main head of § 298. 


2. Dative. 


299. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used 
after adjectives! which take the dative and rarely after 
nouns (§ 234. a): as, — 

genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a sort of armor 

suited to the defence of the body. 

té sociam stude6 scribendis versibus esse (Lucr. i. 25), / desire that thou 

be my partner in writing verses. if aha 

a. The dative is used in a few expressions after verbs :2 as, — 

diem praestitit operi faciend6 (Verr. II. i, 148), he set aday for doing the work. 


praeesse agro colendd (Rosc. Am. 50), fo take charge of cultivating the land. 

esse solvend6, ¢o be able to pay (to be for paying). 

Nore. — This construction is a remnant of a more general use of the 
dative of the gerund and gerundive. 

é. The dative is also used in certain legal phrases after nouns 
meaning officers, offices, elections, etc., to indicate the function or scope 
of the office, etc. : as, — 

comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 33), elections for nominating consuls. 

triumvir col6niis dédiicundis (Jug. 42), a triumvir for planting colonies. 

triumviri reiptblicae constituendae (title of the Triumvirate), triumvirs 
(a commission of three) for settling the government. 


3. Accusative. 


300. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is 
used after the prepositions ad, inter, circa, ob (and rarely in 
and ante); most frequently . after ad, denoting Purpose 
(cf. §-318./0),:-as,— peepee ET 


1 The dative of the gerund and gerundive occurs most commonly after 
the adjectives accommodatus, aptus, ineptus, bonus, habilis, iddneus, par, 
itilis, initilis. But the accusative with ad is common with most of these 
(cf. § 234. 3). 

2 Such are praeesse, operam dare, diem dicere, locum capere. 











254 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ gor. 


mé vocas ad scribendum (Or. 34), you summon me to write. 

vivis nén ad dépdénendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam (Cat. i. 4), you 
live, not to put off, but to confirm your daring. 

nactus aditiis ad ea cénanda (B. C. i. 31), having found means to under- 
take these things. 

inter agendum (Ecl. ix. 24), while driving. 


Nore. — The Accusative of the gerund with a preposition rarely takes 
a direct object, the Ablative of the gerund very rarely. The Gerundive is 
used instead (§ 296). 


4. Ablative. 


301. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is 
used (1) to express Manner, Means, Cause, etc.; (2) after 
Comparatives ; (3) after the prepositions ab, dé, x, in, and 


(rarely) prs and eum: as, — 


(1) multa pollicendé persuadet (Jug. 46), he persuades by large promises. 

Latiné loquend6 cuivis par (Brut. 128), egual to any man in speaking Latin. 

niillis virtiitis praeceptis tradendis (Off. i. 5), without delivering any 
precepts of virtue (by delivering no precepts). 

his ipsis legendis (Cat. Maj. 21), dy reading these very things. 

obsciiram atque humilem conciendd ad sé multitiidinem (Liv. i. 8), ca//- 
ing to them a mean and obscure multitude. 

(2) nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off. i. 47), 
no duty is more important than repaying favors. 

(3) in ré gerenda versari (Cat. Maj. 17), to be employed in conducting 
affairs. 

Note. — The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is also very rarely 

used depending on verbs and adjectives: as, — 

Appius non abstitit continuandd magistratum (Liv. ix. 34), Appius did 
not desist from continuing his magistracy. 

REMARK. — The Gerund is often found co-ordinated with nominal con- 

structions, and sometimes even in apposition with a noun : as, — 

(1) in ford, in ciiria, in amicorum periculis pulsandis (Phil. vii. 7), 27 the 
forum, in the Senate-house, in defending my friends in jeopardy. 

(2) ad rés diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Liv. xxi. 3), for 
the most widely different things, obeying and commanding. 


III. SUPINE. 


Note. — The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension (§ 71. 
a), having no distinction of tense or person, and limited to two uses. 


§§ 302, 303.] SUPINE. 255 


302. (RULE 66.) The Former Supine (in -um) is used 
after verbs of motion to express purpose. It may take an 
object in the proper case. Thus, — . 

quid est, imusne séssum? etsi monitum vénimus té, non flagitatum (De 

Or. iii. 17), how now, shall we be seated? though we have come to re- 
mind, not to entreat you. 

vénérunt questum initirias (Liv. iii. 25), they came to complain of wrongs. 

REMARK. — The supine in -um is especially common with ed; and with 
the passive infinitive iri forms the future infinitive passive. Thus, — 


fuére civés qui rempiblicam perditum irent (Sall. Cat. 36), there were 
citizens who went about to ruin the republic (cf. § 258. 6. Rem.). 

non Grais servitum matribus ibd (AEn. ii. 786), 7 shall not go to be a slave 
to the Grecian dames. 

si scisset sé trucidatum iri (Div. ii. 22), 2/4e (Pompey) had known that he 
was going to be murdered. (cf. § 288. f.] 


303. (RULE 67.) The Latter Supine (in -t)! is used 
only with a few adjectives, with the nouns fas, nefas, and 
opus, and rarely with verbs, to denote an action zz refer 
ence to which the quality is asserted: as, — 





O rem non modo visi foedam, sed etiam auditi (Phil. ii. 63), a thing not 

only shocking to see, but even to hear of. 

quaerunt quid optimum factd sit (Verr. IT.i, 68), they ask what ts best to do. 

pudet dicta (Agric. 32), zt zs shame fo tell. 

Norte. — The latter supine is thus in appearance an ablative of specifi- 
cation (§ 253), but see § 71. a. 

REMARK. — The supine in -i is found especially with such adjectives as 
indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote 
case, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis, difficilis, iicundus, ad with 
the gerund is more common. Thus, — 

nec visi facilis nec dicta adfabilis illi (En. iii. 621), Ze zs not pleasant 

Sor any man to look at or address. 

difficilis ad distinguendum similitiidd (De Or. ii. 212), a likeness difficult 

to distinguish. 

With all these adjectives the poets often use the Infinitive in the same 
sense: as,— . 

facilés aurem praebére (Prop.), zwdulgent to lend an ear. 

1 The only latter supines in common use are auditi, dicti, facti, inventi, 


memorati, nati, visi. In classic use this supine is found, in all, in twenty- 
four verbs. It is never followed by an object-case. 


256 ‘CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 304. 


CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 


Note. — The Conditional Sentence differs from other compound sen- 
tences in this, that the form of the main clause (APODOSIS) is determined 
in some degree by the nature of the subordinate clause (PROTASIS), upon 
the truth of which the whole statement depends. 


Conditional Sentences may be classified as follows : — 


I. SIMPLE PRESENT OR PAST CONDITIONS, nothing implied as to ful- 
filment (§ 306). 

a. More vivid (§ 307). new dy, ‘i | | 

b. Less vivid (§ 307)- Pura, Garba 

3. CONDITIONS CONTRARY { a. Present (§ 308), ye “A a 
To Fact: b. Past (§ 308). O° Live, ee, 

a. Indefinite Subject (§ 309. a). 

4. Repeated Action (§ 309. 4, c). 


2. FUTURE CONDITIONS: { 


4 


4. GENERAL CONDITIONS: { 


I. in clause of Fact, Wish, 





a. Protasis Command (§ 310. 4, c). 
Disguised: } 2. in Participial Expression 
5. ImpLtep ConpITIONS: 4 . ainda 
1. Potential Subjunctive (§ 
6. Protasis 311. a). 
| Omitted: ) 2. Subjunctive of Modesty 
f _ (§ 3tt. 4). 





1. Protasis and Apodosis, 


"e 804. A complete conditional sentence consists of two 
clauses, the P is and the A : 


*} 


The clause containing the condition is called the. PRoTa- 
sis; the clause containing the conclusion is called the 
APODOSIS : as, — 

si qui exire volunt [PROTASIS], cOnivére possum [APODOsIs] (Cat. ii. 27), 

if any wish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut. 

si est in exsilid [PROTASIS], quid amplius postulatis [APopDosIs] (Lig. 13), 

if he is in exile, what more do you ask? 

NorTe.—It should be carefully noted that the Protasis is the dependent 
clause. 

a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional particle 
8i{iF) or one of its compounds: sin, nisi, etiamsi, etsi, tametsi, 


- 





§ 305.] CLASSIFICATION. 257 


tamenetsi. Any relative or concessive word, may also serve to intro- 
duce a protasis. 

6. The Apodosis is often introduced by some correlative word or 
phrase : as, sic, » ita, tum, ea condicione, etc. Thus, — 





ita enim senectiis honesta est, si sé ipsa défendit (Cat. Maj. 38), o# this 
condition is old age honorable, if it defends itself. 

si quidem mé amaret tum istiic prodesset (Ter. Eun. 446), zf he loved me, 
then this would be profitable. 

c. The Apodosis is the principal clause of the conditional sentence, 
but may at the same time be subordinate to some other clause, and 
so be in the form of a Participle, an Infinitive, or a Phrase: as,— 

sepultira quoque prohibitiri ni réx humari itississet (Q. C. viii. 2, 12), z#- 
tending also to deprive him of burial, unless the king had ordered 
him to be interred. 

quod si praeterea némd sequatur, tamen sé cum sola decima legidne 

itirum [esse] (B. G. i. 40), dut if no one else would follow, he would 
go with the tenth legion alone. 

si quds adversum proelium commovéret, hés reperire posse (id.), 7f the 

loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find, etc. 

Note. — When the Apodosis itself is in Indirect Discourse, or in any de- 
pendent construction, the verb of the Protasis is regularly in the Subjunc- 
tive (as in the first two of the above examples, see § 337). 

@. Conditions are either (1) Particular or (2) General. 

1. A Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts 
occurring at some definite time. 

2. A General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts which 
may occur (or may have occurred) at any time. 

} 2. Classification. 

805. The principal or typical Forms of conditional 
sentences may be exhibited as follows : — 


a. SIMPLE CONDITIONS, with xothing implied as to fulfilment. 


1. Present, xothing implied. Present Indicative in both clauses. 
si adest,! bene est, 7f he zs [now] here, it 2s well. 





1 Cf. the Greek forms: a. 1. ef rpdooe: TodTo, Kad@s eye. 
- 2. el €rpacce ToOTO, kahds eixev. el Erpate Todro, kad@s Eayxev. 
b. 1. éav mpdooy TodTo, Kah@s eke. 2. ef mpdooa Todro, kad@s av Exor. 
ce. 1. el Erpacce TodTO, KadGs dy efyev. 2. ef Expate Toro, kad@s dv éoxer. 
d. 1, ey Tes KNéwTy, KOAaSeT AL, 2. el ris KNémTaL, ExoddfeTo. 


7: 
J 


/ 


258 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. - [§ 305. 


2. Past, nothing implied. Some past tense of the Indicative in 
both clauses. 


si wisi bene erat, if he was [then] here, z¢ was well. 
si adfuit, bene fuit, 7f he has been here, it has been well. 


6. FUTURE CONDITIONS (necessarily as yet unfulfilled). 
1. More vivid. 
——— | 
(a) Future Indicative in both clauses. 
si aderit, bene ert, ¢f he is (shall be) ere, it will be well. 


(8) Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in 
apodosis (condition on thought of as completed before conclusion begins). 


si adfuerit, bene erit, 7 he zs (shall have been) here, zt wild [then] be well. 

2. Less vivid. 

(a) Present Subjunctive in both clauses. 

si adsit, bene sit, 7f he should be here it would be well. 

(8) Perfect Subjunetivesin-protasis, Present Subjunctive in apod- 
osis (condition thought of as completed before conclusion begins). 


si adfuerit, bene sit, if he should be (should have been) here, it would 
[then] de well. 





¢. CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT. 
1. Present,geucrary to fact, Imperfect Subjunctive in both clauses. 


si adesset, bene esset, if he were Sguscd here, it would be well (but he is 
NOT here). 


2. Past, contrary to fact. Pluperfect Subjunctiye.in both clauses. 


si adfuisset, bene fuisset, 7f he had [then] been here, it would have been 
well (but he was NOT here). 


d. GENERAL CONDITIONS. Usually not differing in form from 
Particular Conditions (a, 4, c) ; but sometimes distinguished in the 
cases following : — 


. Present General Condition (Indefinite Time). 
- 
i Present Subjunctive second person singular in protasis, Present 


Indicative in apodosis. 
si hdc dicas, créditur, 7f any one [ever] says this, it is [always] believed. 
(8) Perfect Indicative in protasis, Present in apodosis. 








si quid dixit, créditur, if he [ever] says anything, it is [always] believed. 
2. Past General Condition (Repeated Action in Past Time). 


§ 306.] PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS. 259 


(a) Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in 
apodosis. PRR Reo!) Se 
si quid diceret, crédébatur, zf he [ever] said anything it was [always] 
believed (= whatever he said was always believed). 


(8) Pluperfect Indicative in protasis, Imperfect in apodosis. 





si quid dixerat, credebatur, zf he [ever] said anything, it was believed. 


. REMARK.— The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. 
Thus, ¢f he is alive now is a PRESENT condition, to be expressed in Latin by 
the Present Indicative ; ¢f he zs alive next year is a FUTURE condition, ex- 
pressed in Latin by the Future Indicative. Again, if he were here now isa 
PRESENT condition contrary to fact, and would be expressed by the Imper- 
fect Subjunctive ; 7f he were to see me thus is a FUTURE condition less 
vivid, to be expressed by the Present Subjunctive ; and so, too, if you advised 
him, he would attend may be future less vivid. 


3. Present and Past Conditions. ee Implied. 
806. (RULE 73.) In the statement of present and past 


conditions whose falsity is nox typlied, the present and 


past tenses of the Indicative d 
Apodosis, Thus, — 


si ti_exercitusque valétis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), 7f you and the army are 
well, it is well. | Present Condition. ] 

si qui magnis ingeniis in e6 genere exstitérunt, non satis Graecorum 
gloriae respondérunt (Tusc. i. 3), 7f any men have appeared of 
great genius in that branch, they have failed to compete with the glory 
of the Greeks. [Past Condition. ] 

accépi Roma sine epistula tua fasciculum litterarum in qué si modo 
valuisti et ROmae fuisti Philotimi diicd esse culpam non tuam (Att. 
v.17), / have received from Rome a bundle of letters without any from 
you, which, if you have been well and at Rome, [ take to be the fault of 
Philotimus, not yours. [Mixed: Past condition and Present conclu- 
sion. ] 

quas litteras, si RoOmae es, vidébis putésne reddendas (Att. v. 18), as 
to this letter, if you are at Rome, you will see whether in your opinion 
it ought to be delivered. [Mixed: Present and Future.] 

si némo impetravit adroganter rogo (Ligar. 30), 7f mo one has succeeded 
in obtaining it, my request is presumptuous. [Past and Present.] 


a. In these conditions, the apodosis need not always be in the In- 
dicative, but may assume arly form, according tothe sense. Thus, — 


A WOARAD ASUALYY Tt AAAS 


CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 307. 





fuerit hdc cénsGris, si itidicabat (Div. i. 29), suppose it was the censor’s 
duty, if he judged it false. [Hortatory Subjunctive.] 
si ndndum satis cernitis, recordimini (Milo, 61), 7f you do not yet see 
clearly, recollect. [Imperative.] 
si quid habés certius, velim scire (Att. iv. 10), 7f you have any trustworthy 
information, I should like to know it. [Subj. of Modesty, § 311. 4.] 
Note. — Although the form of these conditions does not imply anything 
as to their truth, the sense or context may have some such implication : as, — 
nolite, si innostro omnium fléti nillam lacrimam aspexistis Milonis, hoc 
minus el parcere (Milo, 92), do not, if amid the weeping of us all you 
have seen no tear [in the eyes] of Milo, spare him the less for that. 
In this passage a cause is put by the speaker in the form of a non- 
committal condition. His hearers are to draw the inference for themselves. 


4. Future Conditions. 


fe 307. Future Conditions may be more_or less vivid. 


. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes 
a iia _supposition of a future ca: case, the apodosis ex- 


pressing what we// de the result. 
2. Ina less vivid future condition, the _supposition..is 


less distinct, the apodosis expressing what zwould_be the 
—__--- = sm AT CT TD 
result in the case supposed. 





a. Inthe more vivid future condition the Future Indicative is used 
in both protasis and apodosis : as, — 

sanabimur si volémys (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish. 

Nore.— In English the protasis is usually expressed by the Present 
Indicative, rarely by the future with SHALL. Sometimes in Latin a con- 
dition of this kind has the Present Indicative in the protasis: as, — 

si pered hominum manibus periisse iuvabit (En. iii. 606), 7f Z perish, it 

will be pleasant to have perished at the hands of men. 


é. In the less vivid future condition the Present Subjunctive is 
. . . as i aE Ge ee 
used in both protasis.and apodosis : as, — 
haec si técum patria loquatur, nOnne impetrare débeat (Cat. i. 19), 7/ your 
country should thus speak with thee, ought she not to prevail ? 


REMARK. — The present subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with 
the future in apodosis from a change in the point of view of the speaker. 


§ 307.] FUTURE CONDITIONS. 261 


c. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of 
the apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the Future 
Indicative in protasis, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present 
Subjunctive : as, — 


si non féceris, igndscam (Fam. v. 19), z/ you do not do it, [ will excuse you. 


REMARK. — The Future Perfect is very often used in the apodosis of a 
future condition : as, — 


vehementer mihi gratum féceris, si hunc adoléscentem himanitate tua 
comprehenderis (Fam. xiii. 15), you w/Z do (will have done) me a 
_ great Savor, if you receive this young man with your usual courtesy. 
Pe form implying future time may stand in the apodosis of 
a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in -dus and 
-rus, and verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like: as, —_ 


si mé praecéperit fatum, vOs mandasse memento, 7f fate cuts me off too 
soon, do you remember that I ordered this (Q. C. ix. 6, 26). 

nisi oculis videritis Insidias Milo6ni 4 Cl6di6 factas, nec déprecatiri sumus 
nec postulatiri (Milo, 6), wzless you see with your own eyes the 
plots laid against Milo by Clodius, I shall neither beg nor demand, etc. 

ndn possum istum acciisare si cupiam (Verr. iv. 87), 7 cannot accuse him 
if I should desire to. 


é. Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used in apodosis with a Present 
or even a Future in protasis, to represent the conclusion rhetorically 
as already accomplished: as, — 


si hdc bene fixum in animé est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), 7f this is well fixed 
in your minds, you have conquered. [For you will have conquered. | 

si eundem [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. 43), if you shall have kept 
the same spirit, we have conquered. 


yj. A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time, 
without implying that it is contrary to fact (§ 308). In such cases 
the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used : as, — 


non poterat nisi vellet (B. C. iii, 44), was not able unless he wished. 

tumulus apparuit .. . si liice palam irétur hostis praeventiirus erat (Liv. 
xxii. 24), @ ill appeared... if they should go openly by light, the 
enemy would prevent. [The first two appear like ind. disc., but 
are not. An observer describing the situations as present ones 
would say potest si velit (etc., see 7), and no ind. disc. would be 
thought of. 


262 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 308. 


\ 5. Conditions Contrary to Fact. 


308. (RULE 73.3.) In the ee 
known to be false, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunc- 
tive are used in both Protasis and Apodosis. Théimper- 


fect refers to Present Time, the pluperfect to Past: as, — 


quas si exsequi nequirem, tamen mé lectulus oblectaret meus (Cat. Maj. 
38), of Z could not [now] follow this (an active life), yet my couch 
would afford me pleasure. [Present.] 

nisi ti 4misissés, nunquam recépissem (id. 11), w#less you had lost it, [ 
should not have recovered it. _[Past.] 


( a. In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to Jast 
time, both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or 
continued action is denoted, or when the condition ¢f true would still 
exist: as, — 
hic si mentis esset suae, ausus esset édiicere exercitum (Pis. 50), if he 
were of sane mind, would he have dared to lead out the army? 
[Here esset denotes a continued state, past as well as present. ] 


f 6. In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the Past tenses 
of the Indicative may be used to express what was zutended, or likely, 
or already begun: as, — 


si licitum esset matrés veniébant (Verr. v. 129), the mothers were coming 
if it had been allowed (see § 305. ¢. 2). 

iam tiita tenébam, ni géns criidélis ferrd invasisset (Ain. vi. 358), 7 was 
just reaching a place of safety, had not the fierce people attacked me, 


REMARK. — In this use, the imperfect indicative corresponds in time to 
the imperfect subjunctive, and the perfect or pluperfect indicative ‘to the 
pluperfect subjunctive. 


fL c. Verbs and expressions denoting necessity, propriety, possibility, 
duty, when used in the Apodosis of a-condition contrary to fact are 
regularly put in the Imperfect, Perfect, | or | Pluperfec Indicative in- 


stead of the Subjunctive : as, — 


sI ita putasset certé optabilius Miloni fuit (Mil. 31), 7 Ae had thought 
so, surely it would have been preferable for Milo. 

si Rémae privatus esset hdc tempore, tamen is erat déligendus (Manil. 
50), 7f he (Pompey) were at this time a private citizen at Rene yet he 
ought to be appointed. 


§ 309.] GENERAL CONDITIONS. | 263 


Nore 1.— In this construction it is only the thing necessary (etc.) that 
is conditioned, and not the necessity itself. If the mecessity itself is con- 
ditioned, the Subjunctive is used as with other verbs. The difference is 
often imperceptible, but may be seen in the following example : — 

quid facere potuissem nisi tum consul fuissem? consul autem esse qui 

potui nisi eum vitae cursum tenuissem & pueritia (Rep. i. 10), what, 
could I have done if I had not then been consul; and how could I 
: have been consul if I had not followed that course of life from boyhood ? 

Nore 2. — This construction is sometimes carried further in poetry: as, — 

si non alium iactaret od6rem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), 2¢ were a laurel, 

but for giving out a different odor. ~ 


d. The participle in -tirus with erfam or fui may take the place of 
an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the Apodosis of a condition 
contrary to fact: as, — 

quid enim futirum fuit [= fuisset], si ... (Liv. ii. 1), what would have 

happened if, etc. : , 

neque ambigitur quin .. . id factiirus fuerit, si... (id.), or zs there any 

question he would have done it if, etc. [Direct: fécisset.] 

Norte. — This construction is regularly used when the apodosis is itself 
a dependent clause requiring the subjunctive, and also in Indirect Discourse. 
In Indirect Discourse fuisse replaces eram or fui (see § 337). 


e. The Present and Perfect subjunctive are sometimes used in 
poetry in the protasis'and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact : 
as, — 

ni comes admoneat, inruat (Ain. vi. 293), had not his companion warned 

him, he would have rushed on. 

ni faciat maria ac terras ferant (id. i. 58), usless he did this, they would 

bear away sea and land. ; 

NoTE. — This is a remnant of an old construction. Its use puts the 
condition in a vivid form,—as if possible at any moment in the future 
though not zow true. 


6. General Conditions. 


309. General Conditions (§ 304. d) have usually the 
same forms as Particular Conditions. But they are some- 
times distinguished in the following three cases : — 


¢ a. The Subjunctive is sometimes used inthe second person singular, 
to denote the act of an Indefinite'Subject.(you = any one). Here 
the Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis : as, — 


264 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 310. 


méns prope uti ferrum est: si exerceas conteritur; nisi exerceds, riibi- 
ginem contrahit (Cato de Mor.), the mind is very like iron: if you 
use it, it wears away ; if you don’t use it, it gathers rust. 
€ 4. In later writers (not in Cicero), the Imperfect and Pluperfect 
Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect Indicative in 
apodosis, to state a repeated or customary action in past time : as, — 
acciisatorés, si facultas incideret, poenis adficiébantur (Tac. A. vi. 30), the 
accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were visited with punishment. 
€ c. Ina general condition in present time, the protasis often takes 
the Perfect, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For past time, 
the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in the apod- 
osis. Thus, — 
si quos aliqua membrorum parte inttilés notavérunt, necari iubent (Q. C. 
ix. 1, 25), zf they [ever] mark any infirm in any part of their limbs, 
they [always] order them to be put to death. [Present.] 
si a persequendo hostés déterrére nequiverant ab tergo circumveniébant 
(Jug. 50), ¢f [ever] they were unable to prevent the enemy from pur- 
suing, they [always] surrounded them in the rear. ([Past.] 
d. \n all other cases, general suppositions — including those intro- 
duced by Indefinite Relatives —are not distinguished in form from 
Particular Conditions. 


~ 7. Condition Disguised. 


810. In many sentences properly conditional, the Prot- 
asis is not expressed by a conditional clause, but is stated 
in some other form of words or implied in the nature of 
the thought. Thus, — 


( a. The condition may be implied in a Clause or in a Participle, 
Noun, Adverb, or some other word or phrase. Thus, — 
facile mé paterer — illd ipsd iudice quaerente — pro Sex. Roscid dicere 
(Rosc. Am. 85), 7 should readily allow myself to speak for Roscius 
if that very judge were conducting the trial. [Present contrary to 
fact: si quaereret, etc. ] 
nilla alia géns tanta mole cladis non obruta esset (Liv. xxii. 54), there is 
no other people that would not have been crushed by such a weight of 
disaster. [Past contrary to fact: si alia fuisset. ] 
ném6 unquam sine magna spé immortalitatis, sé pro patria offerret ad 
mortem (Tusc. i. 32), 20 one, without great hope of immortality, would 
ever expose himself to death for his country. [Present contrary to 
fact: nisi magnam spem habéret. ] 


§ 311.] CONDITION OMITTED. 265 


€ 4. The condition may be contained in a Wish (optative subjunc- 
tive), or expressed as an Exhortation or Command (hortatory sub- 
junctive, or imperative) : as, — 
utinam quidem fuissem! molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii. 3), 7 wish 
Ll had been [chief]: he would not now be troubling us (i.e. if I had 
been). [Optative Subjunctive. ] 


Note. — The so-called concessive subjunctive with ut and né often has 
the force of a protasis (§ 313. a) : as, — 


ut enim ratidnem Platd nillam afferret, ipsa auctoritate mé frangeret 
(Tusc. i. 49), even if Plato gave no reason, [still] he would, etc. 


c. Rarely the condition is in an zxdefendent clause, as, — 


ridés: maidre cachinnO concutitur (Juv. iii. 100), you laugh; he shakes 
with louder laughter (= if you laugh, he shakes). 


d. The condition is often contained in a Relative Clause (§ 316). 
REMARK. — For the use of a participle as APODOSIS, see § 304. ¢. 


av 8. Condition Omitted. ~ 


311. The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but may be 
inferred from the course of the argument. Thus, — 


poterat Sextilius impiine negare : quis enim redargueret (Fin. ii. 55), Sex- 
tilius might have denied with impunity; for who would prove him 
wrong (if he had). 


REMARK. — Under this head apparently belongs the POTENTIAL SUB- 
JUNCTIVE. ‘3 


I. POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE. 


(2. (RULE 72.) The Potential Subjunctive is used to denote an 





action not as er formed, ossible. 
In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction 
to the immediate future, the Imperfect to ast time. The second 


person is common, indicating an Indefinite Subject (cf. § 309. a). 
Thus, — "4 
hic awasrat qitoniam (N. D. ii. 133), here some one may ask. 
ut aliquis fortasse dixerit (Off. iii. 97), as on® may perhaps say. 
tum in lect6 quoque vidérés susurrds (Hor. Sat. ii. 8.77), then on each 
couch you might hear whisperings. 


Nore 1.— The Present is sometimes used for the Imperfect : as, — 
migrantis cernas (AEn. iv. 401), you might have seen them moving. 


266 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 311. 


NotTE 2.— The Pluperfect is rare. Its place is supplied by the Im- 

' perfect : as, — : 

putassés éius liictiis aliquem finem esse débére (Sen. Dial. 6, 13), you 
would have thought there ought to be some end to his grief. 


Nore 3.— The subjunctive with forsitan does not differ in meaning 

from the Potential Subjunctive, but is an Indirect Question (§ 334. g) : as, — 

forsitan haec illi mirentur (Verr. iv. 124), they may perchance marvel at 
these things. 


REMARK. — The potential subjunctive is strictly an apodosis with 
omitted protasis, sometimes easily supplied, but often not present to the 
mind of the speaker. Soalso the Subjunctive of Modesty (4, below). 


II, SUBJUNCTIVE OF MODESTY. 


fc The patie tina is used in cautious, modest, or hypothetical 
statements (conidnctivus modestiae). This use is especially common 
eae 


ee relia or vellem. Thus, — 
pace tua dixerim (Mil. 103), 7 would say by your leave. 
tii velim sic existimés (Fam. xii. 6 
vix ausim credere (Ov. M. vi. 561), / should hardly dare believe. 
vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phil. i. 16), 7 could wish Antony were here. 
[Here vellem implies an unfulfilled wish in present time; vold or 
ndl6 would express a peremptory wish. ] 








III. VERBS OF NECESSITY. 


te The Indicative o f verbs signifying necessity, propriety, and the 


like, may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either future 
or contrary to fact : as, — 


longum est ea dicere, sed . . . (Sest. 12), z¢ would be tedious to tell, etc. 
[ Future. ] 

illud erat aptius, aecum cuique concédere (Fin. iv. 2), z# would be more 
fitting to yield each one his rights. 

quanto melius fuerat (Off. iii. 94), ow much better it would have been. 


REMARK. — Notice that, in this construction, the Imperfect indicative 
refers to present time ; the Pluperfect to simply Zas¢ time, like the Perfect. 
Thus oportébat means #7 ought to be [now], but is not; oportuerat means 7¢ 
ought to have been, but was not. 


Notre.—In many cases it is impossible to say whether a protasis was 
present to the mind of the speaker or not. 


§ 312.] PARTICLES OF COMPARISON. 267 


g. Complex Conditions. 


@. Either the protasis or the apodosis may be a complex idea in 
which the main statement is made with expressed or implied qualifi- 
cations. In such cases the true logical relation of the parts is some- 
times disguised : as, — 


si quis horum dixisset . . . si verbum dé républica f€cisset . . . multa plira 
- dixisse quam dixisset putarétur (Rosc. Am. 2), 2f any of these had 
spoken, in case he had said a word about politics, he would be thought 
to have said much more than he did say. [Here the apodosis of 
dixisset is the whole of the following statement (si. . . putarétur), 
which is itself conditioned by a protasis of its own: si verbum, etc. ]. 
quod si in hdc mundo fieri sine ded non potuit né in sphaera quidem 
edsdem mOtiis sine divind ingenid potuisset imitari (Tusc. i. 63) zow 
if that cannot be done in this universe without divine agency, no more 
could [Archimedes] zx his orrery have imitated the same revolutions 
without divine genius. {Here si potuit (a protasis with nothing im- 
plied) has for its apodosis the whole clause which follows, but po- 
tuisset has a contrary-to-fact protasis of its own implied in sine. . . 
ingenio. | 


——— 


xf fe 10. Particles of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted). 

812. The particles of Comparison — cat ce 
si, quasi, acsi, utsi, velutsi,veluti, and poetic ¢ey (all meaning 
as if), and quam si (than if) —take the Present orPRerfect 
Subjunctive, unless these are changed by the sequence 
of tenses. Thus, — sey 

tamquam clausa_si ia. (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asta were closed. 

ita hos [honorés] petunt, quasi honesté vixerint (Jug. 85), they seek them 

(offices) just as if they had lived honorably. 
velut si cOram adesset (B. G. i. 32), as if he were present in person. 
ceu cétera nusquam bella forent (Ain. ii. 438), as if there were no fighting 


elsewhere. , 
magis quam si domi essés (Att. vii. 4), more than if you were at home. 








REMARK. — The English idiom would lead us to expect the Imperfect 
and Pluperfect Subjunctive with these particles ; but the point of view is 
different in the two languages. 


268 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 313. 


11. Concessive Clauses. 


818. The particles of Concession (meaning although, 


granting that) are : quajquami quamlibet, quamvis, quantum. 


vis, ut, né, cum am / 


Se men gy 
a. Quamvis, quatumyis, quamlibe&ut,_and_né take the Sub- 
junctive (§ $266. c): as, — 






quamvis ipsi infantés sint, tamen .. . (Or. 76), Aowever incapable of speak- 
ing they themselves may be, yet, etc. 
ut néminem alium rogasset (Mil. 46), even if he had asked no other. 





6. Tuiget.(properly a verb) takes a Substantive clause in the Sub- 

junctiye (§ 331. ¢): as, — 

- licet omnés in mé terrorés periculaque impendeant (Rosc. Am. 31), though 
all terrors and perils should menace me. 





Note. — The subjunctive with licet is by the sequence of tenses neces- 
sarily limited to the Present and Perfect tenses. 


¢, Btsi, etiamsi, tametsi, even 77, take the same constructions as 
BI (§ 305): as,— 
etsi abest matiiritas (Fam. vi. 184), though ripeness of age is wanting. 
etsi nihil aliud abstulissétis (Sull. 90), evex if you had taken away nothing 
else. 
etiamsi quod scribas non habébis, scribits tamen (Fam. xvi. 26), even if 
you [shall] have nothing to write, still write. 


@,. Cum,concessive.takes.theSubjyunctive (see § 326): as, — 


cum mihi ndn omnin6 excidisset (Fam. v. 13,2), though it had not entirely 
vanished [from my mind]. 


é. Quamquam introduces an admitted fact.and takes the Jadiciew 
tive : as, — 
Seemsdenasentediant 


omnibus — quamquam ruit ipse suis cladibus — pestem dénintiat (Phil. 
xiv. 8), though he is breaking down under his disasters, still he threat- 
ens all with destruction. 


j- Quamquam more commonly means and yet, introducing a cor- 
rection in the indicative : as, — ~ 


quamquam haec quidem tolerabilia vidébantur, etsi, etc. (Mil. 76), and 
yet these, in truth, seemed now bearable, though, etc. 


§ 314.] PROVISO. 269 


g. The poets and later writers frequently use quamvis and quam- 
quam like etsi, connecting them with the Indicative or the Subjunc- 
tive, according to the nature of the condition. Thus, — 


quamquam movérétur (Liv. xxxvi. 34), a/though he was moved. 
Pollid amat nostram, quamvis est riistica, miisam (Ecl. iii. 84), Polio 
loves my muse, though she ts rustic. 


Norte. — Even Cicero occasionally uses quaamquam with the Subjunctive : 
as, — 
quamquam né id quidem suspicidnem coitidnis habuerit (Planc. 53), 
though not even that raised any suspicion of a coalition. 


h. The Relative pronoun qui is often used with the Subjunctive 
to express concession (see § 320. @). 


z. Concession is often expressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive 
without a particle (§ 266) : as, — 


sit clarus Scipio, drmétur eximia laude Africanus, habeatur vir égregius 
Paullus . . . erit profectd inter h6rum laudés aliquid loci nostrae 
gloriae (Cat. iv. 21), let Scipio be renowned, let Africanus be honored 
with especial praise, let Paulus be regarded as a remarkable man, 
[still] there will surely be some room for my glory amid the praises of 
these men. 


12. Proviso. 


314. (RULE 74.) Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum, intro- 
ducing a Proviso, take the Subjunctive : as, — 





dderint dum metuant (Off. i. 97), /e¢ them hate, if only they fear. 

valétud6 modo bona sit (Brut. 64), provided the health is good. 

dummodo inter mé atque té miirus intersit (Cat. i. 10), provided only the 
wall (of the city) zs between us. 


a. In a negative proviso né is used, with or without modo, etc. : 
as, — 


modo né sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 105), rovided [in pleasure] he be 
not of the herd of cattle. 

id faciat saepe, dum né lassus fiat (Cato R. R. v. 4), det him do this 
often, provided he does not get tired. 

dummodo ea (sevéritas) né variétur (Q. Fr. i. 1, 20), Arovided only it (strict- 
ness) d¢ not allowed to swerve. 

tantum né noceat (Ov. M. ix. 21), only let it do no harm. 


70 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 315. 


é. The Hortatory Subjunctive without a particle sometimes ex- 
presses a proviso (see § 266. @) : as, — 


sint Maecénatés, non deerunt, Flacce, Mar6nés (Mart. viii. 56, 5), so there 
be Mecenases, Virgils will not be lacking. 


13. Use of Sf and its Compounds. 
315. The uses of some of the more common Conditional 
Particles may be stated as follows :— Sop 


G4. 1. Siis used for affirmative, wisi nisi (ni) and sinOp for negative 
conditions. With nisi (generally unless) the apodosis is stated as 


universally true except in the single case supposed, in which case it 
is (impliédly "leaeothes EUS, : 


nisi Conon adest maereo, us/ess Conon ts here, T mourn (i.e. lam always 


in a State of grief except in the single case of Conon’s presence, in 
which case I am not). 





With si nOn (zf zot) the apodosis is only stated as true i the 
(negative) case supposed, but as to other cases no statement is 
made. Thus, — 

si ConGn non adest maereo, zf Conon is not here [ mourn (i.e. 1 mournin | 

the single case of Conon’s absence, nothing being said as to other 
cases in which I may or may not mourn). 

2. Ni is an old form surviving in a few conventional phrases, and 
reappearing in poets and later writers. ; 

Sometimes nisi si, except if, unless, occurs : as, — 

noli putare mé ad quemquam longi6rés epistulas scribere, nisi si quis ad 

mé pliira scripsit (Fam. xiv. 2), except im case one writes more to me. 

6. Nisi vérd and nisi forte regularly introduce an objection or 
exception zronicadly, and take the Indicative : as, — 

nisi vérd L. Caesar criidélior visus est (Cat. Iv. 13), useless, indeed, L. 

Caesar seemed too cruel. 

Nore. — This is the regular way of introducing a reductio ad absurdum 
in Latin. Wisi alone is sometimes used in this sense: as, — 

nisi inum hdc faciam ut in puted cénam coquant (Plaut. Aul. 365), 

unless I do this one thing, [make them] cook dinner in the well. 

c. Sive (seu) .. . sive (seu), whether. . . or, introduce a con- 
dition in the form of an alternative. They may be used with any 
form of condition, or with different forms in the two members. Often 
also they are used without a verb, Thus, — 


§ 316.] RELATIVE CLAUSES. | 271 


nam illd locd libentissimé soled iti, sive quid mécum ipse cdgitd, sive 
quid aut scribd aut lego (De Leg. ii. 1), for 7 enjoy myself most in 
that place, whether Lam thinking by myself or am either writing or 
reading. 


Nore. — Sive . . . seu and seu. . . sive are late or poetic. 


DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. 


I. RELATIVE CLAUSES. 


Dependent Relative Clauses may be thus classified : — 
1. Conditional Relative Clauses (§ 316). 


2. Clauses of PuRPOsE (#ézal Clauses) (§ 317). 
3. Clauses of CHARACTERISTIC, including — 
a. Simple Result (Consecutive Clauses) (§ 319). 
6. Clauses of Characteristic (including cause and hindrance) (§§ 320, 


321). 
c. Clauses of Time (§§ 322 ff.). 


1. Conditional Relative Clauses. 


316. A clause introduced.by a Relative Pronoun or 
Relative Adverb may be treated as a conditional clause 
and take the Constructions of Protasis (§ 305) : 











qui enim vitiis modum apponit, is partem suscipit vitidrum (Tusc. iv. 42), 
he who [only] sets a limit to faults, takes up the side of the faults. 
[= si quis apponit.] 

quod qui faciet, non aegritiidine sdlum vacabit, sed, etc. (Tusc. iv. 38), 
and he who does (shall do] this, will be free not only, etc. [=si quis 
faciet.] 

philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit 
dégere (Cat. Maj. 2), philosophy, which iF any one should obey, he 
could spend his whole life without vexation. [==si quis pareat.] 

quaecumque causa vos hiic attulisset, laetarer (De Or. ii. 15), I should be 
glad, whatever cause had brought you here (i.e. if any other, as well as 
the one which did). [=si. . . attulisset.] 


Note. — The relative in this construction is always Indefinite in mean- 
ing, and more commonly in form. : 


a. The special constructions of General Conditions are sometimes 
found in Conditional Relative Clauses: viz., — 


272 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 317. 


1. The Second Person Singular Subjunctive in the protasis with 
the Indicative of a general truth in the apodosis (§ 309. a) : as, — 


bonus ségnior fit, ubi neglegas (Jug. 31, 28), a good man becomes less dilt- 
gent when you don’t watch him. 


2. In later writers the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the 
protasis and the Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis : as, — 


quocumque sé intulisset, victdriam sécum trahébat (Liv. vi. 8), wherever 
he advanced, he carried victory with him. 


3. The Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative in the protasis and the 
Present or Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (§ 309. ¢) : as, — 

cum ad villam véni, hoc ipsum nihil agere mé délectat (De Or. ii. 24), 
whenever I come to the villa, this very doing nothing delights me 
(whenever I have come, etc.). [Present General Condition.] 

cum rosam viderat, tum incipere vér arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), whenever 
he saw (had seen) a rose, then he thought spring was beginning. [Past 
General Condition. ] 


-. 2, Clauses of Purpose. 


317. (RULE 75.) A clause expressing purpose is called 
a Finav Clause. : 

Final clauses take the Subjunctive i by_ut 
(uti), negative né (ut né), or by a Relative pronoun or 
adverb. 


They may be divided into Pure, Relative, and Sub- 
stantiys. 

1. Pure Clauses of Purpose are introduced by ut (uti) or né. 
They express the purpose of the main verb in the form of a modify- 
ing clause. 

2. Relative Clauses of Purpose are introduced by the Relative pro- 
noun qui, or by the Relative adverbs ubi, unde, qu6, etc. The ante- 
cedent is expressed or implied in the main clause. 

3. Substantive Clauses of Purpose are introduced by ut (uti), 
negatiye né. They differ from Pure Final Clauses in having the 
construction of a substantive. (For Substantive Clauses of Purpose, 
see § 331.) 

Examples of Pure and Relative clauses of purpose are — 


§ 317] CLAUSES OF PURPOSE. 273 


ab aratrd abdiixérunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii. 12), chey 
brought Cincinnatus from the plough that he might be dictator. 

né qua éius adventiis procul significatio fiat (B. G. vi. 29), that no sign 
of his arrival may be made at a distance. 

ut né sit impiine (Mil. 31), that it be not with impunity. 

L’ scribébat Sratidnés quas alii dicerent (Brut. 206), Ae wrote speeches for other 

men to deliver. 

ed exstinctd fore unde discerem néminem (Cat. Maj. 12), that when he was 
dead there would be nobody from whom (whence) / could learn. 


Notre. — The Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the 
corresponding demonstrative. Thus qui= ut is (etc.), ubi = ut ibi, and so 
on (cf. § 319. note). 

a. Sometimes the relative or conjunction has a correlative in the 
main clause: as, — 

légibus idcircd omnés servimus, ut liberi esse possimus (Clu. 146), for 

this reason we are all subject to the laws, that we may be free. 

ed consilid ... ut (regularly), wth this design, that, etc. 

ea causa... né, for this reason, lest, etc. 


| 6. The ablative gud (=ut ed) is used as a conjunction in final )_ 


clauses which contain a comparative: as, — 





libertate tisus est; qué impiinius dicax esset (Quinct. 11), he took advantage 
of liberty, to bluster with more impunity (by which the more). 
Nore 1.—So quiminus (ut ed minus) introduces a subjunctive 
clause after verbs of hindering (see § 331. ¢). 
NoTE 2.— Occasionally qué introduces final clauses which do not con- 
tain a comparative : as, — 
qué sibi (exercitum) fidum faceret (Sall. Cat. 11), 22 order to make the 
army devoted to himself. 


c. The Principal clause, on which a final clause depends, is often 
to be supplied from the context. Thus, — 


ac né longum sit ... itissimus (Cat. iii. 10), and, not to be tedious, we 
ordered, etc. (Strictly, 7 order not to be tedious, J say, we ordered.| 
sed ut eddem revertar, causa haec fuit timoris (Fam. vi. 7, 3), dut, to return 
to the same point, this was the cause of fear. 
REMARK. — By a similar ellipsis the subjunctive is used with nédum 
(sometimes né), sti// less, not to mention that: as, — 


nédum ... salvi esse possimus (Clu. 95), mach less could we be safe. 

nédum isti . . . ndn statim conquisitiri sint aliquid sceleris et flagiti (Leg. 
Ag. ii. 97), far more will they hunt up at once some sort of crime and 
scandal. 


274 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 318. 


quippe secundae rés sapientium animos fatigant ; né illi corruptis mGri- 
bus victdriae temperarent (Sall. Cat. 11), for prosperity overmasters 
the souls, even of the wise ; much less did they with their corrupt morals 
put any check on victory. 

Nore. — With nédum the verb itself is often omitted : as, — 

aptius himanitati tuae quam tota Peloponnésus nédum Patrae (Fam. vii. 
28, 1), fitter for your refinement than all Peloponnesus, to say nothing 
of Patra. : 


REMARK. — Clauses of Purpose are sometimes rendered in English by 
that or in order that, with may or might; but more frequently by the In- 
finitive with TO: as, — 

véni ut vidérem, / came to see (that I might see). 


818. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin 
in various ways ; but never (except rarely in poetry) by 
the simple Infinitive as in English (§ 273). 

The sentence, they came to seek peace, may be ren- 
dered — 


(1) vénérunt ut pacem peterent. [Final clause with ut (§ 317).] 

(2) vénérunt qui pacem peterent. (Final clause with Relative (§ 317).] 

(3) [vénérunt ad petendum pacem.] (Not found with transitive verbs 
(§ 300. note), but cf. ad parendum senatui.) [Gerund with ad (§ 300).] 

(4) vénérunt ad petendam pacem. [Gerundive with ad (§ 300).] 

(5) vénérunt pacem petendi causa (gratia). [Gen. of Gerund with causa 
or gratia (§ 298. c).] 

(6) vénérunt pacis petendae causa (gratia). [Gen. of Gerundive with 
causa (§ 298. c).] ; 

(7) vénérunt pacem petitiiri. [Future participle (§ 293. 4) + not in Cicero. ] 

(8) vénérunt pacem petitum. [Former supine (§ 302).] 





These forms are not used indifferently, but — 


a. The usual way of expressing purpose is by ut (negatively né), 
unless the purpose is closely connected with some one word, in which 
case a relative is more common. Thus, — 

Arria gladium dedit maritd ut sé interficeret, Arria gave her husband a 

sword to kill himself (that he might kill himself). 

Arria gladium dedit marit6 qu6 sé interficeret, drvia gave her husband a 

sword to kill himself w1TH (with which he might, etc.). 


6. The Gerund and Gerundive constructions of purpose are usu- 
ally limited to short expressions, where the literal translation of the 


: i? WA “ ; > . iz 
§ 319.] CLAUSES OF RESULT. 275 


phrase, though not the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh or 
strange. ‘ 

c. The Supine is used to express purpose only with verbs of 
motion, and in a few idiomatic expressions (§ 302). 

@. The Future Participle used to express purpose is a late con- 


struction (§ 293. 4). 4 sz; 
3. Clauses of Result. 


Note. — The use of the Subjunctive to express Result comes from its 
use in Clauses of Characteristic. 


319. (RULE 76.) A clause that expresses Result js 


called a Consecutive Clause. . 
Consecutive Clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by _ 
ut, so that (negative, ut non), or by a Relative (pronoun or 


adverb). . 
oe 

They may be divided into Pure, Relative,and Substan-. 
tive (of. § 317) 

1. Pure Clauses of Result are introduced by ut or ut non. They 
express the result of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause. 
C2. Relative Clauses of Result are introduced by the Relative pro- 
noun qui, or by the Relative adverbs ubi, unde, quo, etc. The 
antecedent is expressed or implied-in the main Clauses 
(3. Substantive Clauses of Result are introduced by ut or ut n6n. 

ey differ from Pure consecutive clauses in having the construction 


of a substantive. (For Substantive Clauses of Result, see § 332.) 
Examples of Pure and Relative Clauses of Result are — 








tanta vis probitatis est ut eam in hoste diligamus‘(Lel. 29) so great is 

the power of goodness that we love it even in an enemy. 

nam est innocentia affectio talis animi, quae noceat némini (Tusc. iii. 16), 

Sor innocence is such a quality of mind as to.do.harm to no one. 
nila est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritate contendere (Tusc. i. 
43), there is no swiftness which can compare, etc. 

NoTE. — The Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the 
corresponding demonstrative. Thus, qui—ut is (etc.), ubi—ut ibi, and 
so on (cf. § 317. note). 

REMARK. — Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correlative 
words as tam, talis, tantus, ita, sic, aded, usque ed, which belong to the 


main clause. ae 
Sener | \ 


oe x ee clae of Te wah edo vrhreow Urohkey W lo 
276 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 319. 
Kacy OR ere 
a. A negative result is regularly expressed by ut or qui with non, 
nemo, and similar negatives (not né). Thus, — 

multis gravibusque vulneribus cdnfectus ut iam sé sustinére non posset 

(B. G. ii. 25), used up with many severe wounds so that he could no 
longer stand. 

némo est tam senex qui s€ annum n6n putet posse vivere (Cat. Maj. 












A: ometimes used as being less positive than ut ndn: as, — 
ita corrigas né mihi noceat (Fam. vi. 7, 6), correct the book so that 
hee | 


& S : eats 
wy nb Frequently a clause of result is used in a restrictive sense, and 
: a ts to a Proviso (cf. § 314) : as, — 


this is so far useful that we ar utterly mocked by the accusers (i.e. 


6c est ita titile ut né plané illidamyr ab acciisatoribus (Rosc. Am. 55), 
useful only on this hgh etc.). 


é. subjunctt¥é with the Kelative quominus (= ut ed minus) 
oe 4 result; after words GfMindering or refusing 





studia téneagits (Cat. Maj. 60), 

‘ intoyest in tilling the 
er generalmegatives, 
od) non; so, also\after 
tomb, hesitation, and tite 


~ 


Nouod pn] ego illi dixerim(Plaut. Bac. 1012), 
Dthat I have not-told him. 
qyot\loubt kat (cf. the Eng., 7 do not doubt but 
_s-—— — 
aegng 2 pstin Min .. 4 L hardly refrained from, etc. 

isil kmpedit quin . . ., there is nothing to prevent, etc. 


REMARK.— The constructions of Purpose and Result in Latin are 
precisely alike in the affirmative (but see seguence, § 287. c), but in the 
negative, Purpose takes né, Result ut_nén, etc. Thus, — 





custdditus est né effugeret, he was guarded in order that he MIGHT not 
escape. ; } 


_ custéditus est ut non effugeret, Le-was guarded so that he DID not. ; 


unrdicale, neo tharaclexreles of bh, @etle co derc}- Where, 


§ 320.] . CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC. 277 
TA th AD MPMI EA 
So in Purpose clauses né quis, né quid, né dllus, né qué, néquandé, 
nécubi, etc., are used; in Result clauses, ut némé, ut nihil, ut nillus, etc. 
Thus, — 


cernere né quis eds neu quis contingere posset (Afn. i. 413), that no one 
might see them, no-one touch them. 

ita multi sunt imbécilli senés_ ut nillum offici minus exsequi possint 
(Cat. Maj. 35), many old men are so feeble that they cannot perform 
their duties to society. 

né quand6 liberis prdscriptorum bona patria reddantur (Rosc. Am. 145), ° 
lest ever the patrimony of the proscribed should be restored to their chil- 
dren. 


The clause of Result is sometimes expressed in English by the Infini- 
tive with TO or SO-AS-TO or an equivalent : as, — 







tam longé aberam ut non vidérem, 7 wd too far away to see (so far that 
I did not see ; cf. § 320. ¢). fy . 
7 tur & cette 

\ + Clauses ‘of Characteristic. 


4 
/ $20. (RULE 77.) Arelative clause with the Subjunctive 


ye is often used to indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, 


where there is no idea of Result. “~ 














This construction is especially common where the antecedent is 
otherwise undefined. Thus, — 


neque enim tii is i ids (Fam. v. 12, 6), for you are not such a 
one, as not to know. 


multa dicunt quae vix intellegant (Fin. iv. 2), they say many things 
which (such as) they hardly understand. 


a. A relative clause of characteristic is used after general expres- 
Sions of existence or non-existence, including questions implying a 
negative, especially with gunt qui, there ave [some] who; quis est qui, 
who is there who? Thus, — 


sunt qui discéssum animi a corpore putent esse mortem (Tusc. i. 18), 
there are some who think that the departuré of soul from body consti- 
tutes death. : 

erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Ann. xvi. 29), there were some who 
pitied Helvidius. (Cf. est cum (§ 322. Rem.).] 









NoTe.—These are called Relative Clauses with an Indefinite Antecedent, 
but are to be distinguished from the Indefinite Relatives in protasis (see § 3 £6). 





ae 


Se Sh 
278 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 320. 


C44. A relative clause of characteristic may follow nus and sdlus;_. 
as, — 

sdlus es cilius in victoria ceciderit ném6 nisi armatus (Deiot. 34), you 
are the only man at whose victory no one has fallen unless armed. 


‘.c¢. A clause of result or characteristic, with quam ut, quam qui, 
ay be used after comparatives : as, — 


mAaidrés arborés caedébant quam quas ferre miles posset (Liv. xxxiii. 5), 
they cut larger trees than what a soldier could carry (too large fora 
soldier to carry). 

Canachi signa rigidiéra sunt quam ut imitentur véritatem (Brut. 70), the 
statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature fatter than that 
they should). 


a Nore. — This construction corresponds to the English Zoo . .« f0. 


@. A relative clause of characteristic is used in expressions of 
Restriction or Proviso (cf.,§ 319. 4): as, — 


quod sciam, so far as / know. 
servus est ném6, qui modo tolerabili condicidne sit servitiitis (Cat. iv. 16), 
there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable condition of slavery. 


. A relative clause expressing cause or concession takes the sub- 
junctive (§§ 313. 4, 321. 4): as, — ‘ 
virum simplicem qui nés nihil célet (Or. 230), of / decayed man, who hides 
nothing from us! ([Causal.] 
peccasse mihi videor qui 4 té discésserim (Fam. xvi. 1), 7 seem to myself 
to have done wrong because I have left you. [Causal.] 


Norte. — In this use the relative is equivalent to cumis, etc. It is often 
preceded by ut, utpote, or quippe: as, — 
nec consul, ut qui id ipsum quaesisset, moram certamini fécit (Liv. xlii. 
7), nor did the consul delay the fight, inasmuch as he had sought 
that very thing (as [being one] who had sought, etc.). 
convivia cum patre non inibat, quippe qui né in oppidum quidem nisi 
perrar6 veniret (Rosc. Am. 52), since he did not even come, etc. 


—f. (RULE 78.) Dignus, indignus, aptus, iddneus take a clause 
probably of result with a relative (or rarely with ut): as, — 
digna in quibus élabdrarent (Tusc. i. 1), (things) worth spending their 
toil on (worthy on which they should, etc.). 
indignus eras qui facerés initriam, ¢¢ was beneath you to doa wrong (you 
\ were unworthy who should, etc.). 
\ iddneus qui impetret (Manil. 57), /i¢ to obtain. On ok 


— — 
RN RE th ROE 


~~ 





a ; e {jos 
§ 321.] CAUSAL CLAUSES= | 
Nore. — With these words the poets often use the Infinitive : as, ue 
fons rivd dare ndmen iddneus (Hor. Ep. i. 16, 12);-@-source fit to give a 
name to a stream. ri 
aetas mollis et apta regi (Ov.), a time of life soft and easy to be guided. 


5. Causal Clauses. = Ps 


821. (RULE 79.) The Causal Particles quod, wits, and 
quoniam take the Indicative, when the reason is given on the 


cc E _~ . . 
authority of Speaker ; the Subjunctive, when 
the reason is given on ity of another: as,— 


1. Indicative : — 





cum tibi agam gratids quod mé vivere coégisti (Att. iii. 3), when J may 
thank you that you have forced me to live. 
quia spostrema aeisfickta est (Verr. ix iv. I 19), brcamse zt was built last. 





have spoken of its advantage, let us speak of the eae of effecting it. 


(2. Subjunctive :— 


mihi gratulabare quod audissés mé meam pristinam dignitatem obtinére 
(Fam. iv. 14, 1,) you congratulated me because [as you said] you had 
heard, etc. 

mea mater irata est quia non redierim (Plaut. Cist. 103), my mother is 

angry because I did n’t return. 

Note 1.— The Subjunctive in this use doen on the principle of In- 
termediate Clauses (§ 341. a). 

REMARK.— Non quod, non quia, non quoniam, introducing a reason ex- 
pressly to deny it, take the Subjunctive. Non qué and non quin introduce a 
Result clause, but with nearly the same meaning (§ 341. d. Rem.). Thus, — 

pugilés ingemiscunt, nén quod doleant, sed quia omne corpus intenditur 

(Tusc. ii. 56), doxers groan not because they are in pain, but because, etc. 
non quia philosophia percipi non posset (id. i. 1), ot that philosophy can- 
not be acquired. 

non quoniam hoc sit necesse (Verr. II. i. 24), uot that this is necessary. 

non quin énitendum sit (De Or. ii. 295), mot that pains must not be taken. 

a. Causal Clauses introduced by quod, etc., take the Subjunctive 
in Indirect Discourse, like any other dependent clause (see § 336). 

6. A Relative, when used to express cause, regularly takes the 
Subjunctive (see § 320. ¢@). 

c. Cum causal takes the Subjunctive (see § 326). 


Nore. — In early Latin cum causal takes the Indicative (§ 326. note 3). 


280 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§§ 322, 323. 


6. Relations of Time. 


C323) The particles ubi, ut, cum, quandd, alone or with.» 
a € —") 
>cutique, may be used as Indefinite Relatives, 
ee constructions of_protasis (cf. § 316). 
} 


cum id malum esse negas (Tusc. ii. 29), when you 
tant) deny it to be an evil. [Present, nothing implied (cf. § 306).] 
quod profect6 cum mé niilla vis cégeret, facere ndn audérem (Phil. v. 51), 
which [ would surely not venture t0 do, as long as no force compelled 
me. Pere contrary to facet cf. § 308.] 
. dolore non“frangi (Tusce. ii. 66), when you see that 
those are aie “pain, etc. [General condition: cf. § 309. a.] 
id ubi dixisset, hast €mittébat (Liv. i. 32, 13), when he 
had said thisyhe used to cast the spear ritories. [Re- 
peated actio n: see § 309. 6.] 














REMARK*— Rarely a time characterized by its circumstances, etc. 
So the phrases est cum, fuit cum, etc., are used in general expressions like 
est qui, sunt qui (§ 320. a): as, — 
“ac fuit quidem cum mihi quoque initium requiéscendi fore iiistum arbi- 
. trarer (De Or. i. 1), and there was a time when I thought a beginning 
me vest would-bezustifiable on my part. 






hey themselves define (with reference to the time of the 
speaker) the time of the clause on which they depend. 1 

2. They describe-by its circumstances the time of the main clause, 
which is defined not by them, but By the main‘clause itself. 


Thus, in: When did UE Emperor Frederic} it died while the 
people were still mourning the death of his father, the time of the main 
clause, he died, is definitely fixed by the temporal clause, zwhz/e the people, 
etc., as is seen by the fact that the temporal clause answers the question, 
WHEN did he die? Butin: Zhe Emperor Frederick died while the people 
were still mourning the death of his father, the time of the main clause is 
not defined by the temporal clause, but is regarded as sufficiently definite in 
itself (or from the context). The temporal clause is added to describe that 
time by the circumstances of the people’s grief. 


means of the ood, invariably using the Indicative in the first and the 
Subjunctive in the second. They commonly also used the particles 


and the tenses in accordance with this division. 


These two sorts of temporal clauses the Romans distinguished by 





§§ 324, 325-] RELATIONS OF TIME. 281 


I, POSTQUAM, UBI, ETC. 






The particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut (ut pri- 
t semel), simul atque 2 (simul 4 ac, or. simul) take the Indic- 


ative (usually in the > Perfect Or or rthe historical present): as, — 


milités postquam_vi , nihil reliqui victis fécére (Sall. 
Cat. 11), when the armies had won the victory, they left nothing to 
the vanquished. 

ubi omnés idem sentire intelléxit (B. G. iii. 23), when he understood that 
all agreed (thought the same thing). 

simul 4c pers€nsit (Ain. iv. 90), as soon as he perceived. 


(a. These particles less commonly take the Imperfect or Pluperfect 
indicative. The Imperfect in this case denotes.a state of things ; the 


\Pluperfect, an action completed in past time. Thus, — 





P. Africanus posteaquam bis consul et cénsor fuerat (Div. in Czc. 69), 
when Africanus had been (i.e. had the dignity of having been) twice 
consul and censor. 

haec iuventiitem, ubi familiarés opés défécerant, ad facinora incendébant 
(Sall. Cat. 13), when their inherited resources had given out. 


&. Rarely some of these particles take the subjunctive : as, — 


posteaquam maximas aedificasset Ormnassetque classés (Manil. 9), Aaving 
built and equipped mighty fleets (after he had, etc.). [But the more 
approved editions have postea tum. ] 


Il. CUM TEMPORAL. 


825. (RULE 80.) Cum (quom) TEMPORAL, meaning-eher, 
takes the Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Subjunctive, 
other tenses in the Indicative. Thus, — 


cum servili belld premerétur (Manil. 30), when she (Italy) was under the 
load of the Servile War. 

cum id nintiatum esset, matiirat (B. G. i. 7), when this had been reported 
he made (makes) haste. 

cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fuérunt servi (Rosc. Am. 120), when 
Roscius was slain, the slaves were on the, spot. 


[For examples with the Future, see c, below.] 
Norte. — The Present takes the Indicative, because present time is gen- 


erally, from its very nature, defined in the mind; and it is only when | 
the circumstances are described as causal or adversative (see below, § 326), 





282 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. _ [§ 326. 


that the Subjunctive is used. The Petfect takes the Indicative as the 
tense of narration, as with postquam, etc. The Imperfect and Pluperfect 
a their nature, better fitted to describe than to define the time. 


a,/Cum temporal sometimes takes the Imperfect and Pluperfect 
Indicative to indicate a definite past time: as, — 
quem quidem cum ex urbe pellébam, hoc providébam animé (Cat. iii. 16), 
when I was trying to force him (conative imperfect) from the city, [ 
looked forward to this. 
tum cumin Asia rés magnas permulti amiserant (Manil. 19), a¢ that time, 
when many had lost great fortunes in Asta. 


_ 6, When the clauses are inverted, so that the logical temporal 
clause becomes -the main clause, and the main clause becomes the 
temporal clause, the Indicative must be used with cum: as, — 

hoc facere noctii apparabant, cum matrés familiae repenté in publicum 
procurrérunt (B. G. vii. 26), they were preparing to do this by night, 
when the women suddenly ran out into the streets. 

c. To denote future time cum takes the Future or Future Perfect 

Indicative : as, — 

longum illud tempus cum non ero (Att. xii. 18), that long time when I 
shall be no more. 

cum véneris, cOgnéscés (Fam. v. 7), when you come (shall have come) 
you will find out. 


REMARK. — Rarely a future time is characterized and takes the Sub- 


III. CUM CAUSAL OR CONCESSIVE. 


326. ULE 81.) Cum CAUSAL Or CONCESSIVE takes the 
Subjunctive : as, — 





cum primi ordinés . . . concidissent, tamen Acerrimé reliqui resistébant 
(B. G. vii. 61), though the first ranks had fallen, still the others re- 
sisted vigorously. [Concessive.] 


NOTE 1.— Cum in these uses is often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, 
praesertim: as, — 
nec reprehendd: quippe cum ipse istam reprehénsidnem non figerim 
(Att. x. 3), Z find no fault: since I myself did not escape that blame. 
NoTE 2.— These causal and concessive relations are merely variations 


of the idea of #im?. The attendant circumstances are regarded as the cause 
of the action, or as tending to Aimder it (cf. qui causal and concessive). 





§ 327.] RELATIONS OF TIME. 283 


Nore 3. — In early Latin cum (quom) causal and concessive usually takes 
the Indicative. So sometimes in classical Latin: as, — 
quom tua rés distrahitur, utinam videam (Plaut. Trin. 573), since your 
property is torn in pieces, oh! that I may see, etc. [Cf. § 313. d. note.] 
REMARK. —Cum causal may usually be translated by sizce ; cum con- 
cessive by although or while. 
a. Cum in the sense of quod, om the ground that, frequently takes 
the Indicative : as, — 
gratulor tibi cum tantum valés apud Dolabellam (Fam. ix. 14, 3), 7 con- 
~ gratulate you that you are so strong with Dolabella. 
( 6. Cum... tum, signifying doth ... and, usually takes the 
Tidi¢ative ; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though, 
it may have the Subjunctive (§ 326). Thus, — 
cum multa non probd, tum illud in primis (Fin. i. 18), while there are many 
things I do not approve, there is this in chief. But— 
cum rés tOta ficta sit pueriliter, tum né efficit quidem quod vult (id. 19), 
while the whole thing is childishly got up, he does not even make his 
point (accomplish what he wishes). 


IV. ANTEQUAM AND PRIUSQUAM. 







Antequam and priusquam, defore, have in narration 
e construction as cum temporal (§ 325): as, — 





antequam tuas légi litteras (Att. ii. 7), defore 7 read your letter. 
neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit aduléscéns (Liv. xxxix. 10), she 
did not let the young man go till he pledged his faith. 
antequam hominés nefarii dé med adventii audire potuissent, in Mace- 
doniam perréxi (Planc. 98), before those evil men could learn of my 
_ coming, I arrived in Macedonia. 

Note. — The idea of purpose (usually corresponding to could or should 
in English) regularly requires the subjunctive: as, — 

nunquam prius discéssit quam ad finem serm6 esset perdiictus, ze. he 

waited for the conversation to be finished. 

a. Antequam and priusquam, when referring to future time, take 
the Present or Future Perfect Indicative ; rarely the Present Sub- 
junctive: as, — 

priusquam dé céteris rébus responded, dé amicitia pauca dicam (Phil. ii. 

3), before L reply to the rest, 1 will say a little on friendship. 
antequam veniat litteras mittet (Ag. ii. 53), defore he comes, he will send 
a letter. : 


~~ 


ee 


oe4. >." DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 328. 








6. In a few cases the Subjunctive of the indefinite second person 

is found with antequam and priusquam (cf. § 309 @): as, — 

in omnibus negotiis priusquam aggredidre, adhibenda est praeparatid 
diligéns (Off. 1, 73), 2 all undertakings, before you proceed to action, 

careful preparation must be used. 


V. DUM, DONEC, AND QUOAD. 


Dum, ddnec,.and_quoad, implying Purposts daube, or 
eapectatio mn, take the Subjunctive, otherwise the Indica- 
/ tive. 


I. Subjunctive : as, — 


exspectas fortasse.dum dica as f dicat (Tusc. ii. 17), you are waiting perhaps for 


him to say (till he by aren 9 
Aenéan morand6 sustinuit dum genitor pyotectus abiet (4En. x. 800), he 
4 kept 4ineas in check till his father get away in safety. 


Epaminondas exercébatur plirimum luctandé ad eum finem quoad stans 
complecti posset atque contendere (Nep. Epam. 2), Zpaminondas 
trained himself in wrestling so far as to be able to grapple standing 
and fight (in that way). 


2. Indicative (cf. a, below) : as, — 


hoc féci dum licuit, intermisi quoad n6n licuit (Phil. iii. 33), 7 dd this so 
long as it was allowed, I discontinued it so long as it was not. 
quoad potuit restitit (Cat. Maj. 11), Ze resisted as long as he could. 


NOTE 1.— Quamdii takes the Indicative only : as, — 


s€ oppid6d tam diti tenuit quamdia in provincia Parthi fuérunt (Fam. xii. 
19), he kept himself within the town so long as the Parthians were in 
the province. 


Norte 2. — For dum and dummodo introducing a proviso, see § 314. 

a. Dum in the sense of whz/e usually takes the Present Indicative 
to indicate a continued action in fast time, if that time is not con- 
trasted with any other (§ 276 e. and note) : as, — 

dum haec geruntur (B. G. i. 46), while this was going on. 


REMARK. — With all temporal particles the Subjunctive is often found 
depending on some other principle of construction. (See Intermediate 
Clauses below, §§ 340 ff.) 


§§ 329, 330.] INFINITIVE CLAUSES. Roe 


II. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 


329. A clause used as a noun is called a Substantive 
Clause. 

A Substantive Clause may be used as the Subject or 
Object. of a verb, as an . Appositive or as a Predicate Nom- 
inative (or Accusative). 

Note. — Many ideas which in English take the form of an abstract 
noun may be rendered by a substantive clause in Latin. Thus, he de- 
manded an investigation, may be postulabat ut quaestid habérétur. The 
common English expression FoR with the infinitive also corresponds to a 


Latin substantive clause: as, zt remains for me to speak of the piratic war, 
relicum est ut dé belld dicam piratico. 


REMARK. — When a Substantive Clause is used as Subject, the verb 
to which it is subject is called zmfersonal, and the sign of the CompETREH ON 
in English is the so-called expletive IT. 


Substantive Clauses are classified as follows : — 


¢ ticeinrtive Ci autes a. Infinitive clause as Subject (§ 270). 


6. Infinitive clause as Object (§ 330. B). 
se SU BIONGEIYE CLAUSES: a. Of Purpose (command, wish, fear) (§ 331). 


(ut, a, quo, quin, 4 5. Of Result (happen, effect, hinder) (§ 332). 
quominus). 


3. INDICATIVE CLAUSE with quod: Fact, Specification, Feeling. 
4. INDIRECT QUESTIONS : Subjunctive, introduced by Interrogative Word. 


1. Infinitive Clauses. 


830. A. The Infinitive with Subject-Accusative may 
be used as the subject of sum and of many impersonal verbs 
(see § 270). 

B. The Infinitive with Subject- Accusative i is used as the 
object — 

1. Of all verbs and expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and 
perceiving (Indirect Discourse) (§ 272). 


mé spéro liberatum [esse] metii (Tusc. ii. 67), 7 trust 7 have been freed 


Srom fear. 


) 286 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 330. 


2. Of iubed and veto, and rarely of other verbs of commanding, 
requesting, admonishing, and the like (§ 331. a). Thus, — 


vetuére [bona] reddi, vetuére in piblicum redigi (Liv. ii. 5), they forbade 
the return of the goods (that they be returned), etc. 

Labiénum iugum montis adscendere iubet (B. G. i. 21), Ae orders Labienus 
to ascend the ridge of the hill. 


3. Sometimes of verbs of wishing (§ 331. 6): as, — 


ifidicem mé esse ndn doctdrem vold (Or. 117), 7 wish to be a judge, not a 
teacher. 


REMARK. — The Infinitive with Subject-Accusative, though not strictly 
a Clause, is equivalent to one, and may be treated as such. 


a. If the main verb is changed to the Passive, — 


1. The subject of the infinitive becomes xominative, and the in- 
finitive is retained (Personal Construction) : as, — 


“mons dicitur ab hostibus tenéri, the Ai// is said to be held by the enemy. 
Labiénus iugum montis adscendere iubétur, Zadienus is ordered to ascend 
the ridge of the hill. 


2. The passive is used zwpersonally, and the clause retained as 
its subject (Jipersonal Construction) : — 


dicitur montem ab hostibus tenéri, z¢ zs said that the hill is held by the * 
enemy. 


6. 1. Verbs of saying, thinking, etc., take in the Passive either 
the Personal or the Impersonal construction. But the Personal is 
more common and is regular with the tenses of incomplete action. 
Thus, — 


beaté vixisse videor (Lzl. 15), 7 seem to have lived happily. 
Epaminondas fidibus praeclaré cecinisse dicitur (Tusc. i. 4), Zpami- 
nondas ts said to have played excellently on the lyre. 


2. Iubed and veto always take the personal construction : as, — 

ilissus es reniintiari consul (Phil. ii. 79), you were under orders to be de- 
clared consul. 

Nolani miirds portasque adire vetiti sunt (Liv. xxiii. 16), the men of Nola 
were forbidden to go to visit the walls and gates. 


c. In the compound tenses of verbs of sayzug, etc., the impersonal 
construction is more common, and with the gerundive is regular : 
as, — ; 


§ 331] CLAUSES OF PURPOSE. 287 


traditum est etiam Homérum caecum fuisse (Tusc. v. 114), @ is @ tra- 
dition, too, that Homer was blind. 

ubi tyrannus est, ibi n6n vitidsam, sed dicendum est plané niillam esse 
rempiblicam (Rep. iii. 43), where there is a tyrant, it must be said, 
not that the Commonwealth is evil, but that it does not exist at all. 


d. The poets and later writers extend the personal use of the 
passive to verbs which are not properly verba sentiendi, etc. : as, — 


colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am. ii. 6, 61), z¢ 7s gathered [from this 
memorial] ¢hat / pleased my mistress. 


é. The Infinitive with a subject may depend on any word imply- 
ing speech or thought, though not strictly a verb of sayzng, etc. 

y. Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing, 
and the like, regularly take the construction of. Indirect Discourse, 
contrary to the English idiom : as, — 

minatur sésé abire (Plaut. Asin. 604), Ae threatens to go away. Disgh- te 

abed, / am going away.| 

ex quibus spérant sé maximum friictum esse captiros (Lel. 79), from 

which they hope to gain the utmost advantage. [Direct : capiémus.] 


Nore. — These verbs, however, often take a simple Complementary In- 
finitive. Thus, — pollicentur obsidés dare Be G. iv..21), they promise to 
give hostages. 


2. Clauses of Purpose. 


Note. — Clauses of Purpose may be used substantively (1) as the 
Object of verbs of admonishing, etc. (§ 331) ; (2) as the Subject of these 
same verbs in the passive (§ 331. 2), and of impersonal verbs and verbal 
phrases (§ 331. 2) ; (3) in apposition with a substantive, or as predicate 
nominative, etc. 


331. Substantive Clauses of Purpose with ut (negative 
né) are used as the object of all verbs denoting an action 
directed toward the future. 


Si 


Such are, verbs meaning to admonish, ask, bargain, command, 
decree, determine, permit, persuade, resolve, urge, and wish. Thus,— 


1 Such verbs or verbal phrases are id ago, ad id venid, caved (né), cénsed, 
cogo, concédd, constitud, ciird, décernd, Edicd, flagitd, hortor, imperd, insté, 
mando, moneod, negotium d6, operam dO, 6rd, persuaded, petd, postuld, prae- 
cipid, precor, proniintid, quaerd, rogd, sciscd, timed, vided, vold. 


288 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 331. 


his ut conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 28), he ordered them to search. 
persuadet Castic6 ut régnum occuparet (B. G. i. 3), Ze persuades Casticus 
to usurp royal power. 


( a. lubed, order, and veto, forbid, take the Infinitive with Subject 
Accusative (§ 330. B. 2): as, — 
liberés ad sé addiici iiissit (B. G. ii. 5), Le ordered the children to be 
brought to him. 
ab opere légatés discédere vetuerat (id. 20), he “ane Sorbidden the lieuten- 
ants to leave the work. 
NoTeE 1.— Other verbs of commanding, etc., may take the Infinitive : 
as, a, ; > 
haec facere imperatum est, orders were given to do this. 
7 rés monet cavére (Sall. Cat. 52), he occasion warns us to be on our guard. 


&. Verbs of wishing take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive. 
The Infinitive is more common when the subject remains the same ; 
the Subjunctive, when it changes. Thus, — 

1. Subject of dependent verb same as that of main verb : — 


\ quds non tam ulcisci studed quam sanare (Cat. ii. 17), whom J do not care 
so much to punish as to cure. 

2. Subject of dependent verb different from that of main verb : — 

cupid ut impetret (Plaut. Capt. 102), 7 wish he may get it. 

mallem Cerberum metuerés (Tusc. i. 12), 7 would rather you feared 

Cerberus. 

Note. — Volé and cupid, however, tend to take the Accusative and In- 
finitive rather than the Subjunctive, even when the subject changes. 
When it remains the same, the subject accusative is rarely found. Thus, — 

itidicem mé esse, non doctdrem voléd (Or. 117), 7 wish to be a judge, not 

a teacher. 
cupio mé esse clémentem (Cat. i. 4), 7 desire to be merciful. [But regu- 
larly, cupid esse cléméns (see § 271. a).] 

c. Verbs of permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Infini- 
tive. Patior takes regularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative ; 
so often sind. Thus, — 

permisit ut partés faceret (De Or. ii. 366), permitted him to make divisions. 

vinum importari non sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow wine to be 

imported. 


+ ad. Verbs of determining, decreeing, resolving, bargaining take 
either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive : as, — 


§ 331-] CLAUSES OF PURPOSE. 289 


constituerant ut L. Bestia quererétur (Sall. Cat. 43), they had determined 
that Lucius Bestia should complain. 
proelid supersedére statuit (B. G. ii. 8), he determined to refuse battle. 


Nore 1.— Different verbs of these classes with the same meaning vary 
in their construction. For verbs of dargaining with the Gerundive, see 
§ 294. d. 

NOTE 2.— Verbs of decreeing and voting often take the Infinitive of the 
Second Periphrastic conjugation : as, — 

Régulus captivos reddendés [esse] nOn cénsuit (Off. i. 39), Regulus voted 

that the captives should not be returned. (He said, in giving his 
formal opinion: captivi non reddendi sunt. | 


XW e. 1. Verbs of caution and effort take the Subjunctive with ut. 
But conor, fry, usually takes the Complementary Infinitive as, — 
cura ut quam primum intellegam (Fam. xiii. 10), Ze¢ me know as soon.as 
possible (take care that I may understand). 
dant operam ut habeant (Sall. Cat. 41), they take pains to have (give their 
attention that, etc.). 
si transire cOnarentur (B. G. i. 8), if they should try ta cross. 


Nore. — Conor si also occurs (cf. miror si, etc., § 333. 4. Kem.). 


2. Verbs denoting an effort to hinder take either (1) a Subjunctive 
clause with quOminus or né, or (2) the Infinitive: as, — 
non déterret sapientem mors quominus. . . (Tusc. i. 91), death does not 
prevent the wise man from, etc. 
né facerem impedivit (Fat. 1), prevented me from doing. 
prohibet accédere (Caec. 46), prevents him from approaching (to ap- 
proach). 


Note. — For verbs of hindering negatived (xot to hinder), see § 332. g. 


Ff. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with né affirmative and 
né non or ut negative. Thus,— . 
timed né Verrés fécerit (Verr. v. 3), 7 fear that Verres has done, etc. 
vereor ut tibi possim concédere (De Or. i. 35), 7 fear [that] 7 cannot 
grant you. 
Nore. —In this use né is commonly to be translated by ¢hat or Zest, ut 
and né non by ¢hat not. 


REMARK. — With some verbs of the above classes ut is often omitted. 
So generally after verbs of wishing, necessity, permission, after dic, fac, 
and often in Indirect Discourse after verbs of commanding, etc.: as, — 


290 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 332. 


vold amés (Att. ii. 10), 7 wish you to love, etc. 

mé ipsum amés oportet (Fin. ii. 85), you ought to love me. 

Mnésthea vocat, classem aptent socii (Ain. iv. 289), 4e calls Mnestheus 
[and orders that] 42s comrades should make ready the fleet (cf. § 339). 


Nore. — Similarly né is omitted after cave in Prohibitions (cf. § 269. a). 

g. With any verbs of the above classes the poets may use the 
Infinitive instead of an object clause : as, — 

hortamur fari (En. ii. 74), we urge [him] Zo speak. 

né quaere docéri (id. vi. 614), seek not to be told. 

h. A substantive clause of Purpose used as the object of a verb 
becomes the subject when that verb is put in the passive. Thus, — 
imperatum:est ut iter facerent, z¢ was ordered that they should march. 
permissum est ut irent, Aermission was given that they should go. 

z. The impersonals licet and oportet take as subject either a 
Substantive clause of Purpose or an Infinitive with or without subject- 
accusative. Thus, — 

licet mé ire, z¢ 7s allowed me to go. 

queramur licet (Czec. 41), we are allowed to complain. 

Nore 1.— The Subjunctive with oportet omits ut, exceptyin later writers 
(see § 331. 7, Rem.). 


NOTE 2. — Licet may take the ies eens usually without ut, to denote 
concession (see § 313. 4). 


NOTE 3.—Licet may take (1) the Subjunctive ; (2) the Simple Infini- 
tive; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative ; or (4) the Dative and the 
Infinitive. Thus, 7/may go is licet eam, licet ire, licet mé ire, or licet mihi ire. 


3. Clauses of Result. 


Note. — Clauses of Result may be used substantively, (1) as the object 
of faci6, etc. (§ 332) ; (2) as the subject of these same verbs in the passive, 
as well as of other verbs and verbal phrases (§ 332. a, @) ; (3) in apposition 
with another substantive, or as predicate nominative, etc. (see § 332. /). 


332. Substantive Clauses of Result with ut (negative 
ut non) are used as the object of verbs denoting the accom- 
plishment of an effort. 


Such are especially facid and its compounds fettots, conficio, 
etc.). Thus, — 


§ 332-] CLAUSES OF RESULT. 291 


efficiam ut intellegatis (Cluent. 7), 7 wi// make you understand (lit. effect 
that you, etc.). [So faciam ut intellegatis (id. 4).] 

commeatiis ut portari posset efficiébat (B. G. ii. 5), made it possible that 
supplies could be brought. 


a. Substantive Clauses of Result are used as the Subject — 


1. Of passive verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort: 
as, — 

impetratum est ut in senati recitarentur (litterae) (B. C. i. 1), they suc- 

ceeded in having the letter read in the senate (it was brought about 
that, etc.). 

2. Of Impersonals meaning z¢ happens, it remains, it follows, it 
ts necessary, tt ts added, and the like : a’, — 

accidit ut esset lina pléna (B. G. iv. 29), zt happened to be full moon (it 

happened that it was, etc.). [Here ut esset is subject of accidit.] 
reliqua est quarta virtiis ut sit ipsa frigalitas (Tusc. iii. 17), 24 remains 
that the fourth virtue is thrift. [So also restat.] 

6. A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows quam, 
after a comparative (but see § 336. c. note 2) : as, — 

perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusc. ii. 52), he endured all 

rather than betray, etc. 

c. A result clause, with or without ut, is often used elliptically, in 
exclamatory questions. The question may be introduced by the inter- 
rogative -ne. Thus, — 

quamquam quid loquor? té ut iilla rés frangat (Cat. i. 22), yet why do I 

speak ? [the idea] that anything should bend you! 

egone ut té interpellem (Tusc. ii. 42), what, [ interrupt you ?. 

ego té vidére ndluerim (Q. Fr. i. 3, 1), 7 unwilling to see you? 

REMARK. — The Infinitive, in exclamations (§ 274), usually refers to 
something actually occurring ; the Subjunctive, to something contemplated. 


@. The phrase tantum abest, zt zs so far [from being the case], 
regularly takes two clauses of result with ut; one is substantive, the 
subject of abest; the other is adverbdia/, correlative with tantum, 
‘Thus, — 


tantum abest ut nostra mirémur, ut usque eo difficilés 2c mGrdsi simus, - 
ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Démosthenés (Or. 104), so far from 
admiring my own works, I am difficult and captious to that degree, 
that not Demosthenes himself satisfies me. [Here the first ut-clause 
is the subject of abest (§ 332. a); the second, a result clause, after 
tantum (§ 319); and the third, after usque e6.] 


‘ 


\ 


\ 


292 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 332. 


é. The expressions facere ut, committere ut, with the subjunctive, 
often form a periphrasis for the simple verb : as, — 


invitus féci ut Flaminium é senatii éicerem (Cat. Maj. 42), ¢¢ was with 
reluctance that I expelled Flaminius from the senate. 


f. Rarely, a thought or an idea is considered as a result, and is 
expressed by the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and 
infinitive. (§ 336.1). In this case a demonstrative usually precedes : 
as, — 

praeclarum illud est, ut eds . . . amémus (Tusc. iii. 73), “zs is a noble 

thing, that we should love, etc. 

vérisimile non est ut ille anteponeret (Verr. iv. 11), 2¢ 2s not likely that 

he preferred. 


g. A Relative clause of Result with quin is used with verbs or 
other expressions of indering and the like when these are negatived. 
Thus, — 

facere non possum quin. . . (Att. xii. 27), 7 capznot avoid, etc. 

ut nulla ré impedirer quin (Att. iv. 2, 6), that 7 might be hindered by 

nothing from, etc. 


NoTE 1.— The negative may be expressed (as in the examples above) 
or merely implied (as in quis impedit quin eam, who (z.c. nobody) hinders 
me from going ?). 


REMARK. — This usage is found especially with the phrase non dubitd, 
I do not doubt, and similar expressions: as, — 


non dubitabat quin ei créderémus (Att. vi. 2, 3), 4¢e did not doubt that we 
believed him. 


NoTeE 2.— Non dubito, in the sense of / do not hesitate, commonly takes 
the Infinitive, but sometimes quin with the subjunctive. Thus, — 


nec dubitare illum appellare sapientem (Lzl. 1), avd not to hesitate to 
call him a sage. 

dubitandum n6n existimavit quin proficiscerétur (B. G. ii. 2), he did not 
think he ought to hesitate to set out. 


h. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of 
saying or as verbs of commanding or effecting. Hence they are vari- 
ously construed. Thus, — 


rés ipsa monébat tempus esse (Att. x. 8), the thing itself warned that it 
was time. [Cf. monére ut, warn to do something. | 


§ 333.) INDICATIVE WITH “QUOD.” 293 


hic volunt persuadére, non interire animas (B. G. vi. 14), they wish to con- 
vince that souls do not perish. 

huic persuadet uti ad hostés transeat (B. G. iii. 18), persuades him to 
pass over to the enemy. 


Note. — The infinitive with subject-accusative in this construction is 
Indirect Discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive 
sometimes found with these verbs instead of a subjunctive clause. 


4. Indicative with Quod. 


833. A peculiar form of Substantive Clause consisting 
of quod causal with the Indicative is used when the state- 
ment is regarded as a fact: as, — 


alterum est vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium conferunt (Off. 
i. 19), 2¢ is another fault that some bestow too much zeal, etc. [Here 
ut conferant could be used, meaning ¢Aat some should bestow ; or 
the accusative and infinitive, meaning Zo destow (abstractly) ; quod 
makes it a fact that men do bestow, etc.] 

quod rediit nobis mirabile vidétur (Off. i iii. 11 1), that he (Regulus) returned 
seems wonderful to us. 


Notre.— The clause with quod may be used as subject, as object, as 


appositive, etc., but it is commonly either the subject or in apposition with 
the subject. 


a. In colloquial language, the clause with quod sometimes ap- 
pears as an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English 
WHEREAS (cf. § 326. a) : as, — 

quod dé dom6 scribis (Fam. xiv. 2, 3), as to what you write of the house. ys 


6. Verbs of feeding and the expression of feeling take either quod, 
quia (Causal), or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : 
as, — 

quod scribis . . . gauded (Q. F. iii. 1, 9), 7 am glad that you write. 

quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rosc. Am. 136), 7 greatly rejoice 

that this is finished. 

REMARK. — Miror and similar expressions are sometimes followed by a 
clause with si,! apparently substantive, but really a protasis (cf. § 331. ¢. I. 
note). Thus, — 

miror si quemquam amicum habére potuit (Lzl. 54), 7 wonder if he 

could ever have a friend. (Originally, Z/ this is so, J wonder at it.] 


1Cf. the Greek dauyd fw ei. 


s 
\ 


\ ‘ 


\N 


~ 


294 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 334. 


5. Indirect Questions. 


Nore. — An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause introduced by 
an Interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, etc.), which is itself the subject or 
object of a verb, or depends on any expression implying uncertainty or 
doubt. In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distinguished 


\ from interrogative. ‘ 


334. (RULE 82.) An Indirect Question takes its verb 
; é et re 
in the Subjunctjve : as, — 
quid ipse sentiam expdnam (Div. i. 10), 7 will explain what I think. 
[Direct : qui 
rogat mé quid sentiam, Ae asks me what J think. (Cf. rogat mé senten- 
tiam, Ae asks me my opinion.] 


Nore. — An Indirect Question may be the subject of a verb, the direct 
object, the secondary ebject, or an appositive. 


The tenses in Indirect Questions follow the rules for 
sequence of tenses. 


a. Indirect Questions referring to future time take the subjunctive 
of the First Periphrastic conjugation : as, — 
prospicid qui concursiis futiri sint (Div. in Caec. 42), 7 foresee what 
throngs there will be. (Direct: qui erunt ?] 
6. The Deliberative Subjunctive (see § 268 and examples) remains 
unchanged in an Indirect Question, except in tense: as, — 
[quaeritur] utrum Carthago diruatur, an Carthaginiénsibus reddatur (De 
Inv. i. 17), [the question is] sha// Carthage be destroyed, or restored 
to the Carthaginians. 


incert6 quid peterent aut vitarent (Liv. xxviii. 36), sézce it was doubtful 
(abl. abs.) what they should seek or shun. : 


c. In colloquial usage and in poetry the subject of an Indirect 
Question is often attracted into the main clause as object (accusative 
of anticipation) : as, — 

nosti MArcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. viii. 10), you know how slow 

Marcellus is. [For nosti quam tardus sit Marcellus. Cf. 7 know 
thee who thou art.] 


REMARK. — In some cases the Object of anticipation becomes Subject 
by a change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interrogative 
construction is the result: as, — 


§ 335-] INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 295 


quidam saepe in parva peciinia perspiciuntur quam sint levés (Lzl. 63), 
it is often seen, in a trifling matter of money, how unprincipled some (\ 


people are (some people are often seen through, how unprincipled > 
they are). ; 6 
d. Indirect Questions often take the Indicative in poetry : as, — 
non reputat quid labdris est (Plaut. Am. 172), he does not consider what 
_ a task it is. {\ 


e. A few interrogative expressions are used parenthetically in an J 
indefinite sense and do not take a subjunctive. Such are — ee 


nescio quis (and kindred forms), 7 know not who, somebody or other, etc. 
mirum (nimirum) quam, marvellously (marvellous how). “~ 


oo 


Examples are : — 


qui istam nescid quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tusc. iii. 12), who 
greatly extol that freedom from pain, whatever that is. 
mirum quantum profuit (Liv. ii. 1), 2¢ helped prodigiously. a, 


/. An indirect question is occasionally introduced by si in the sense 
of whether (like zf in English, cf. § 333. 6. Rem.) : as, — y 
\ 
circumfunduntur hostés si quem aditum reperire possent (B. G. vi. 37), \ 


the enemy pour round [to see] if they can find entrance. x, 


Nore. — This is strictly a Protasis, but usually no Apodosis is thought 
of, and the clause is virtually an Indirect Question. ‘3 


g. Porsit, forsitan, forsan, fortasse, fortasse an, Jeriaps, are often 
followed by the Subjunctive : as, — 


SK 
forsitan quaeratis qui iste terror sit (Rosc. Am. 5), you may perhaps in- OK 
quire what this alarm is. ji 


Note. —The Subjunctive Clause in this case was originally an Indirect SY 


Question. Thus, 7¢ would be a chance whether, etc. IS 
ste 
III. INDIRECT DISCOURSE. ae 


335. A Direct Quotation gives the exact words of the 
original speaker or writer. 

An Indirect Quotation adapts the words of the speaker 
or writer to the construction of the sentence in which they 
are quoted. 


- 


296 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 336. 


I. ForRMAL INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 


336. 1. Verbs and other expressions of snowing, 
thinking, telling, and perceiving! govern the Indirect 
Discourse. 

2. (RULE 83.) In the Indirect Discourse the mazn 
clause of a Declaratory Sentence is put in the Infinitive 
with Subject Accusative. All Subordinate clauses take 
the Subjunctive. Thus, — 


spéro mé liberatum [esse] dé metii (Tusc. ii. 67), 7 trust 7 have been 
Sreed from fear. 

[dicit] esse nonnillés quorum auctoritas plirimum valeat (B. G. i. 17), 
he says there are some whose influence most prevails. [In direct dis- 
course: sunt nénnilli. . . valet.] 


NoTE 1.— In the statement of all speech or thought, the Romans tended 
to use the Indirect Discourse, etc., with verbs of the classes mentioned, 
but: inquam, said J (etc.), is appropriated to the Direct Discourse except 
in poetry. 

NOTE 2.— The verb of saying, etc., is often not expressed, but implied 
in some word or in the general drift of the sentence: as, — 

Srantés ut urbibus saltem—iam enim agrés dépliratds esse —opem 
senatus ferret (Liv. xli. 6), praying that the senate would at least bring 
aid to the cities —for the fields [they said] were already given up as 
lost. 


1. Subject Accusative. 


a. 1. The Subject of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse must 
regularly be expressed, even if it is wanting in the direct : as, — 
orator sum, / am an orator; dicit sé esse dratdrem, he says he is an 
orator. 
Note. — But the subject is often omitted, if easily understood : as, — 


igndscere impriidentiae dixit (B. G. iv. 27), he said he pardoned their 
rashness. 


1Such are: (1) knowing, scid, cdgndscd, compertum habe, etc.; (2) 
thinking, puto, existimd, arbitror, etc. ; (3) ze//ing, dicd, niintid, referd, pol- 
liceor, promittd, certidrem facid, etc. ; (4) perceiving, sentid, comperid, vided, 
audid, etc. So in general any word that denotes thought or mental and 
visual perception or their expression may govern the Indirect Discourse. 


§ 336.] SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. | 297 


REMARK. — After a relative, or quam (¢haz), if the verb would be the 
same as that of the main clause, it is usually omitted, and its subject is 
attracted into the accusative : as, — 

té suspicor eisdem rébus quibus mé ipsum commovéri (Cat. Maj. 1), Z 

suspect that you are disturbed by the same things as J. 


2. When the verb of saying, etc., becomes fasszve, the construction 
may be either Personal or Impersonal (see § 330. @—d). 


2. Subordinate Clauses. 


6. A subordinate clause merely explanatory or containing state- 
ments which are regarded as true independently of the quotation 
takes the Indicative : as, — 


quis neget haec omnia quae vidémus dedrum potestate administrari (Cat. 
iii. 21), who can deny that all these things we see are ruled by the power 
of the gods ? 

ciiius ingenid putabat ea quae gesserat, posse celebrari (Arch. 20), dy 
whose genius he thought that those deeds which he had done could be 
celebrated. [Here the fact expressed by quae gesserat, though not 
explanatory, is felt to be true without regard to the quotation: quae 
gessisset would mean, what Marius c/aimed to have done.] 


Note. — It often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether 
he shall use the Indicative or Subjunctive in such clauses (cf. §§ 340-342). 


c. Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to a demon- 
strative with a conjunction are not properly subordinate, and hence 
take the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse: as, — 


Marcellus requisisse dicitur Archimédem illum, quem cum audisset 
interfectum permolesté tulisse (Verr. iv. 131), Marcellus is said to 
have sought for Archimedes, and when he heard that he was slain, to 
have been greatly distressed. 

tnumquemque nostriim cénsent philosophi mundi esse partem, ex quo 
[et ex ed] illud natiira cénsequi (Fin. iii. 64), the philosophers say 
that each one of us is a part of the universe, from which this naturally 
Sollows. 


NOTE 1.— Really subordinate clauses occasionally take this construc- 
tion : as, — 
quemadmodum si non dedatur obses pro rupto sé foedus habitiirum, sic 
deditam inviolatam ad suds remissiirum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says] as i 
case the hostage is not given up he shall consider the treaty as broken, 
so if given up he will return her unharmed to her friends. | 


298 - DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 336.4. 


NoTE 2.— The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a 
comparative with quam: as, — 
addit sé prius occisum iri ab ed quam mé violatum iri (Att. ii. 20, 2), e 
adds that he himself will be killed by him, before I shall be injured. 
NoTE 3.— The Subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam 
(see § 332. 4). 
d@. A subordinate clause in the Indirect Discourse occasionally 
takes the Indicative when the fact is emphasized : as, — 
factum éius hostis periculum ... cum, Cimbris et Teutonis ... pulsis, 
non minorem laudem exercitus quam ipse imperator meritus vidéba- 


tur (B. G. i. 40), that a trial of this enemy had been made when, etc., 
the army seemed, etc. 


3. Tenses of the Infinitive. 


336. A. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future In- 
finitive is used in Indirect Discourse, according as the 
time indicated is present, past, or future, with reference to 
the verb of sayzng, etc., by which the Indirect Discourse 
is introduced. Thus, — 

cad6, Z am falling ae cadere, te se ‘ he ee falling. 


cadébam, / was falling | 


re Bele is A.uie, he says | he was falling, 
cecidi, / fe// ae }se cecidisse, | ; 
satiation, I Aad fallin i dixit he said} fell, had fallen. 


IEE co So he says he shall fall. 
cadam, J shall fall { ie castrum [esse], { he said ke should fall. 
cecidero, /shad/ { dicit fore ut ceciderit [rare], Ze says he shall have fallen. 

have fallen \ dixit fore ut cecidisset [rare], he said he should have fallen. 


Nore 1.— All varieties of past time are usually expressed in Indirect 
Discourse by the Perfect Infinitive, which may stand for the Imperfect, the 
Perfect, or the Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct. But sometimes con- 
tinued or repeated action in past time is expressed by the Present Infinitive, 
which in such cases stands for the Present Indicative of the Direct Dis- 
course, and is often called the /mferfect Jnjfinitive (so regularly after 
memini): thus, — 

t€ memini dicere, 7 remember that you said. [Direct : dicébas.] 

NoTE 2.— For various ways of expressing the Future Infinitive, see 
§ 147. ¢. 


§§ 336 b, 337-] CONDITIONS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 299 


4. Tenses of the Subjunctive. 


336. B. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect 
Discourse follow the rule for the Sequence of Tenses 
(§ 286). They depend for their sequence on the verb of © 
saying, etc., by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced. 


Thus in the sentence, dixit sé Romam ittrum ut cOnsulem vidéret, 
he said he should go to Rome in order that he might see the consul, 
vidéret follows the sequence of dixit without regard to the Future 
Infinitive, ittrum [esse], on which it directly depends. 

Nore 1.— This rule applies not only to the subjunctive in subordinate 
clauses in indirect discourse, but also to that which stands for the impera- 
tive, etc. (see examples in § 339), and to that in questions (§ 338). 

Note 2.— A subjunctive depending on a Perfect Infinitive is commonly 
in the Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of saying, etc.,is in a 
primary tense (cf. § 287.2). Thus, — 

tantum profécisse vidémur ut 4 Graecis né verbdrum quidem copia vince- 

rémur (N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in 
Jullness of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks 


a. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in depend- 
ent clauses of the Indirect Discourse even when the verb of saying, 
etc., is in a secondary tense : as, — 


dicébant ... totidem Nervids (pollicéri) qui longissimé absint (B. G. 
ii. 4), they said that the Nervii, who live farthest off, promised as 
many. 


Note. — This construction comes from the tendency of language to 
refer all time in narration to the time of the speaker (Repraesentatio). In 
the course of a long passage in the Indirect Discourse the tenses of the 
subjunctive often vary, sometimes following the Sequence, and sometimes 
affected by Repraesentatid. For examples see B. G. i. 13, vii. 20, etc. 


5. Conditions in Indirect Discourse. 
887. Conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are 
expressed as follows: — 


1. The Protasis, being a subordinate clause, is always in the Sub- 
junctive. t ; 


z. The Apodosis, if independent_and-not hortatory or optative, is 
always in some form of the Infifiitive. 


300 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 337- 


a. The Present Subjunctive in the apodosis of less vivid future 
conditions (§ 307. 6) becomes_the Future Infinitive. Thus there is 
no distinction between more or less vivid future conditions in the 
Indirect Discourse. 

Examples of conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are— 


1. Simple Present Condition (§ 306). 

(dixit) si ipse popul6 R6man6 non praescriberet quemadmodum sué iiire 
literétur, nOn oportére s€sé 4 populd Romano in sud itire impediri 
(B. G. i. 36), Ze satd that if he did not dictate to the Roman people how 
they should use their rights, he ought not to be interfered with by the 
Roman people in the exercise of his rights. [Direct: si nodn prae- 
scribd . . . ndn oportet. | 

praedicavit ...si pace titi velint, inicum esse, etc. (B. G. i. 44), he as- 
serted that if they wished to enjoy peace, it was unfair, etc. [Direct : 
si volunt ...est. Present tense kept by Repraesentatid {§ 336. B. 
a. note).] 


2. Simple Past Condition (§ 306.) 


non dicam né illud quidem si maximé in culpa fuerit Apollonius, tamen 
in hominem honestissimae civitatis honestissimum tam graviter ani- 
madverti causa indicta non oportuisse (Verr. v. 20), 7 will not say 
this either, that, even if Apollonius was greatly in fault, still an honor- 
able man ought not to have been punished so severely, etc. [Direct: 
si fuit . . . non oportuit.] 


3. Future Conditions (§ 307). 


Aeduis sé obsidés redditiirum n6n esse, neque eis . . . bellum illatirum, 
si in ed manérent, quod convénisset, stipendiumque quotannis pende- 
rent: si id non fécissent, longé eis fraternum nomen populi ROmani 
abfutirum (B. G. i. 36), Le said that he would not give up the hostages 
to the dui, but would not make war upon them if they observed the 
agreement, etc.,and paid tribute yearly ; but if they should not do this, 
the name of brothers to the Roman people would be far from aiding 
them. .(Direct: reddam... inferam... si manébunt. . . pendent: 
si non fécerint . . . aberit.] 

id Datamés ut audivit, sénsit, si in turbam exisset ab homine tam neces- 
sarid sé relictum, futiirum [esse] ut céteri cénsilium sequantur (Nep. 
Dat. 6), if zt should get abroad that he had been abandoned by a man 
so closely connected with him, everybody else would follow his example. 
[Direct : si exierit . . . sequentur. ] 


6. In changing a Condition contrary to fact (§ 308) into the Indi- 
rect Discourse, the following points require notice: — 


§ 338-] QUESTIONS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 301 


1. The Protasis always remains uuchanged in_teyse. 

2. If the verb of the Apodosis is active it takes a peculiar infini- 
tive form, made by combining the Participle in -drus with fuisse, 

3. If it is Jasszve or has no supine stem, the periphrasis futtrum 
fuisse ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must be used. 














. An Indicative in the Apodosis becomes Perfect Infinitive. 


Examples are — 


"nec sé superstitem filiae futirum fuisse, nisi spem ulciscendae mortis 
éius in auxilid commilitonum habuisset (Liv. iii. 50), awd that he 
should not now be a survivor, etc. unless he had had hope, etc. 
[Direct : nén superstes essem, nisi habuissem. ] 

quorum si aetas potuisset esse longinquior, futirum fuisse ut omnibus 

perfectis artibus hominum vita érudirétur (Tusc. iii. 69), if life 
could have been longer, human existence would have been embellished 
by every art in its perfection. (Direct: érudita esset.] 

si Cn. Pompéius privatus esset, tamen erat déligendus (Manil. 50), if P. 

were a private citizen, still he ought to be chosen, would become déli- 
gendum fuisse. 

NoTE 1.—JIn Indirect Discourse Present Conditions contrary to fact 
are not distinguished in the afodosis from Past, but the protasis may keep 
them distinct. 

NOTE 2.— The periphrasis futirum fuisse ut is sometimes used from 
choice when there is no necessity for resorting to it. 

Nore 3.— Very rarely the Future Infinitive is used in the Indirect Dis- 
course to express the Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary to fact. 
Only four or five examples of this use occur in classic authors : as, — 


Titurius clamabat si Caesar adesset neque Carnités, etc., neque Eburo- 
nés tanta cum contemptidne nostri ad castra ventiirés esse (B. G. v. 
29), Titurius cried out that if Cesar were present, neither would the 
Carnutes, etc., nor would the Eburones be coming to our camp with 
such contempt. (Direct: si adesset : . . venirent. | 


6. Questions in Indirect Discourse. 


338. (RULE 84.) In the Indirect Discourse a real 
question, asking for an answer, is generally put in the 
Subjunctive: a rhetorical question, asked for effect and 
implying its own answer, in the Infinitive. Thus, — 


quid sibi vellet ? ciir in suas poss€ssidnés veniret (B. G. i. 44), what did 
he want? why did he come into his territories? [Real question. 
Direct : quid vis ? cir venis ? ] 


fos akan 


302 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 339. 


num recentium initiriarum memoriam [sé] dépdnere posse (id. i. 14), 
could he lay aside the memory of recent wrongs? [Rhetorical Ques- 
tion. Direct: num possum ?] 


Nore 1.— No sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and 
the Infinitive in questions in the Indirect Discourse. Whether the ques- 
tion is to he regarded as rhetorical or reai often depends merely on the 
writer’s point of view. Thus, — 


utrum partem régni petitirum esse, an totum éreptiirum (Liv. xlv. 19), 
will you ask part of the regal power (he said), or seize the whole? 


NOTE 2.— Questions coming immediately after a verb of asking are 
treated as Indirect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see § 334). This 
is true even when the verb of asking serves also to introduce a passage in 
the Indirect Discourse. The question may be either real or rhetorical. 


NOTE 3. — For the use of tenses, see § 336. B, note 1. 


a. A Deliberative ae in the Direct Discourse! is always 
retained in the Indirect : as, — 


ciir aliquos ex suis 4mitteret (B. C.i. 72), why (thought he) should he 
lose some of his men? [Direct : cir Amittam ?] 


_ 9. Commands in Indirect Discourse. 


839. (RULE 85.) All Imperative forms of speech take 
the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse : as, — 


reminiscerétur veteris incommodi (B. G. i. 13), remember (said he) the 
ancient disaster. (Direct: reminiscere. | 
finem faciat (id. 20), et him make an end. [Direct : fac.] 


REMARK. — This rule applies not only to the Imperative of the direct 
discourse, but to the hortatory and the optative subjunctive as well. 


NoTE 1. — Though these subjunctives stand for independent clauses of 
the direct discourse, they follow the rule for the sequence of tenses, being 
in fact dependent on the verb of saying, etc. (cf. §§ 286, 336. B, note 1). 

Note 2.— A Prohibition in the Indirect Discourse is regularly expressed 
by né with the Subjunctive, even when ndli with the Infinitive would be 
used in the Direct: as, — 

né perturbarentur (B. G. vii. 29), do mot (he said) de troubled. [Direct : 

nolite perturbari. But sometimes ndllet is found in Ind. Disc.] 


The following example illustrates some of the foregoing principles 
in a connected address : — 


§§ 340, 341.] 


INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 


Si pacem populus Romanus cum 
Helvétiis faceret, in eam partem 
itirds atque ibi futirds Helvétids, 
ubi eds Caesar cénstituisset atque 
esse voluisset: sin belld persequi 
persevéraret, reminiscerétur et veteris 
incommodi populi Romani, et pristi- 
nae virtitis Helvétidrum. Quodim- 
proviso tinum pagum adortus esset, 
cum ei qui flimen transissent suis 
auxilium ferre non possent, né ob 
eam rem aut suae magno opere vir- 
titi tribueret, aut ipsds déspiceret : 
sé ita 4 patribus maidribusque suis 
didicisse, ut magis virtiite quam dold 
contenderent, aut insidiis niterentur. 
Quaré né committeret, ut is locus 
ubi cdnstitissent ex calamitate 
populi ROmani et internecidne exer- 
citiis nOmen caperet, aut memoriam 
proderet. — B. G. i. 13. 


INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 


393 
DIRECT DISCOURSE. 


Si pacem populus R6manus cum 
Helvétiis faciet, in eam partem 
Ibunt atque ibi erunt Helvétii, ubi 
e0s tii cOnstitueris atque esse volu- 
eris: sin belld persequi persevérabis, 
reminiscere [inquit] et veteris incom- 
modi populi Romani et pristinae vir- 
tiitis Helvétidrum. Quod improvisd 
tinum pagum adortus es, cum ei qui 
flimen transierant suis auxilium 
ferre non possent, né ob eam rem 
aut tuae magnO opere virtiti tribu- 
eris, aut nds déspéxeris: nds ita a 
patribus maidribusque nostris didi- 
cimus, ut magis virtiite quam dold 
contendamus, aut insidiis nitamur. 
Quaré n6li committere, ut hic locus 
ubi cénstitimus ex calamitate populi 
Romani et internecidne exercitiis 
nomen capiat, aut memoriam proédat. 


II. INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 


340. 


A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive, (1) 


when it expresses the thought of some other person than 
the speaker or writer (/uformal Indirect Discourse), or (2) 
when it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or 
equivalent Infinitive (Attraction). 


1. Informal Indirect Discourse. 


841. (RULE 86.) A subordinate clause takes the sub- 
junctive when it expresses the thought of some other 
person than the writer or speaker. Thus, — 

a. In Subordinate clauses in formal indirect discourse (§ 336). 
So also in Informal Indirect Discourse in the following cases :— 

&. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a 


command, or a question expressed indirectly, Honey not strictly in 
the form of Indirect Discourse : as, — 


304 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. . [§ 342. 


animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 14), a animal feels what it is 
that is fit. 

hunc sibi ex anim6 scriipulum, qui sé diés noctésque stimulet ac pungat, 
ut €vellatis postulat (Rosc. Am. 6), he begs you to pluck from his heart 
this doubt that goads and stings him day and night. 


c. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb of 
saying, or some modifier of it : as, — 


si quid dé his rébus dicere vellet, féci potestatem (Cat. iii. 11), if 
he wished to say anything about these matters, I gave him a chance. 

tulit dé caede quae in Appia via facta esset (Milo 15), he passed a law 
concerning the murder which (in the language of the bill) took place 
in the Appian Way. 


@. When a reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a rela- 
tive or by quod (rarely quia) (see § 321). Thus, — 


Paetus omnés libros qués pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit (Att. ii. 1, 12), 
Patus presented me all the books which (he said) his father had left. 


REMARK. — Under this head even what the speaker himself thought 
elsewhere may have the Subjunctive. So with quod the verb of saying may 
be in the Subjunctive. (Especially ndn quia, etc. See § 321. Rem.) 


2. Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction). 


842. (RULE 87.) A clause depending on a Subjunctive 
clause or an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Sub- 
junctive if regarded as an integral part of that clause: as, — 
imperat, dum rés adiiidicétur, hominem ut adservent : cum iiidicatum sit, 
ad sé addiicant (Verr. iii. 55), Ae orders them, till the affair should 
be decided, to keep the man ; when he is judged, to bring him to him. 

mos est Athénis laudari in contidne eds qui sint in proeliis interfecti 
(Or. 151), 2¢ ts the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized 
who have been slain in battle. [Here laudari = ut laudentur. ] 

a. But a dependent clause, closely connected grammatically with 
a Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, may still take the Indicative, if it 
is not regarded as a necessary /ogical part of that clause : as, — 

né hostés, quod tantum multitiidine poterant, suds circumvenire possent 

(B. G. ii. 8), Zest the enemy, because they were so strong in numbers, 
should be able to surround his men. 

Nore. — The use of the Indicative serves to emphasize the fact, as true. 
But often no distinction between the two moods is perceptible. 


Io. 


Il. 


12. 


_ IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX. 305 


IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX. 


A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same 
person or thing, agrees with it in Case (§ 183). 

Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles agree with 
their nouns in gender, number, and case (§ 186). 

A Relative pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in gender 
and zumber, but its case depends on the construction of 
the clause in which it stands (§ 198). 

A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in number and person 


($ 204). 


. Superlatives (more rarely comparatives) denoting order and 


succession — also medius, céterus, relicus — usually 
designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant 


($ 193). 


. The Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plu- 


ral, that in -im being used fartitively, and that in -i 
oftenest objectively (§ 194.6). 


. The Reflexive pronoun (sé), and usually the corresponding 


possessive (suus), are used in some part of the predicate 
to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause (§ 196). 

The Possessive Pronouns are used instead of the genitive 
of a personal pronoun: (1) always instead of the Jos- 
sessive genitive, (2) rarely instead of an objective genitive 
($ 197.2). 

A Possessive representing a genitive may have a genitive 
in apposition (§ 197.2). 

Adverbs are used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs (§ 207). 

A question of simple fact, requiring the answer YES or NO, 
is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic 
word (§ 210. @). 

When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, —as in 
nonne, ——an affirmative answer is expected. The particle 
num suggests a wegative answer (§ 210. ¢). 


306 
13. 
14. 
15. 


16. 


17. 


18. 


19. 


20. 
21. 


22. 


a3; 


24. 


25. 


IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX. | 


The subject of a finite verb is in the NOMINATIVE (§ 173. a). 

A noun used to limit or define another, and ot denoting 
the same person or thing, is put in the GENITIVE 
(§ 213). 

The Subjective Genitive is used with a noun to denote (1) 
the Author or Owner, (2) the Source or the Material, 
(3) the Quality ($ 214). 

Words denoting a Part are followed by the Genitive of the 
Whole to which the part belongs (/artitive Genitive, 
§ 216). 

Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the genitive of 
the object (Objective Genitive, § 217). 

Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, 
sharing, guilt, and their opposites; verbals in ax, and 
participles in -ns, when used as adjectives, govern the 
Genitive (§ 218. a, 3). 

Verbs of remembering and forgetting, take the Genitive of the 
object when they are used of a continued state of mind, 
but the Accusative when used of a single act (§ 219). 

Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acqguitting take the Geni- 
tive of the Charge or Penalty (§ 220). 

The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected by an 
action (/ndirect Object, § 224). 

Most verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their 
contraries ; also, to delieve, persuade, command, obey, serve, 
resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, take the Dative 
($ 227). 

Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, 
prae, pro, sub, super, and some with circum, take the 
Dative of the indirect object (§ 228). 

Many verbs of ‘aking away, and the like, take the Dative 
(especially of a ferson) instead of the Ablative of Sepa- 
ration (§ 229). 

The passive of intransitive verbs that govern the dative 
can be used only zmpersonally (§ 146. 2). The dative is 
retained (cf. § 225. ¢). 


26. 


$7: 


28. 


29. 


30. 


34. 


35° 


36. 
37: 


38. 


39: 


40. 


? 


. IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX. 307 


The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote 
Possession (§ 231). 

The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive, 
to denote the person on whom the necessity rests 
(§ 232). 

The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often 
with another Dative of the person or thing affected 
(§ 233. @). 

The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) of 
Jitness, nearness, service, inclination, and their opposites 
($ 234. @). 

The Dative is often required, not by any particular word, 
but by the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of 
Reference, § 235). 


. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusa- 


TIVE (§ 237). 


. A neuter verb often takes an accusative of kindred mean- 


ing (§ 238). 


. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, 


showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative 
along with the direct object (§$ 239. a). 

Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions some- 
times take (in addition to the direct object) a Sec- 
ondary Object, originally governed by the preposition 
(§ 239. 4). 

Verbs of asking and teaching may take two Accusatives, one 
of the Zerson, and the other of the ¢hing (§ 239. ¢). 

The subject of an Infinitive is in the Accusative (§ 173. 2). 

Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the 
Accusative (§ 240. é). 

Words signifying separation or privation are followed by the 
ABLATIVE, with or without a preposition (Adlative of 
Separation, § 243). 

Opus and isus, signifying weed, are followed by the Ablative 
(§ 243. ¢). 

The Ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to denote 


308 


41. 
42. 
43: 
44. 


45- 


46. 


47: 
48. 
49- 


50. 


£1. 


62, 
53: 


54. 


* 


IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX. 


the source from which anything is derived or the material 
of which it consists (§ 244). 

The Ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to ex- 
press cause (§ 245). 

Dignus and indignus; contentus, laetus, praeditus, etc., take 
the Ablative (§ 245. @). 

The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is put in the Abla- 
tive with a or ab (§ 246). 

The Comparative degree is followed by the Ablative (signi- 
fying THAN) without quam (§ 247). 

The Comparative may be followed by quam, ‘Aan. When 
quam is used, the two things compared are put in the 
same case (§ 247. @). 

The manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative, usually 
with cum, unless a limiting adjective is used with the 
noun (§ 248). 

Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with 
cum (§ 248.2). 

The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of 
an action (§ 248.<¢. 1). 

The deponents, ttor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor, with 
several of their compounds, govern the Ablative (§ 249). 

With comparatives and words implying comparison. the 
Ablative is used to denote the degree of difference 
($ 250). 

Quality is denoted by the Ablative with a modifier, usually 
an adjective or limiting genitive (§ 251). 

Price is expressed by the Ablative (§ 252). 

The Ablative of Specification denotes that é7 respect to which 
anything zs or zs done (§ 253). 

A noun or pronoun, with a participle, may be put in the 
Ablative, to define the #/me or circumstances of an action 
(Adblative Absolute). 


An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the 
participle in the ablative absolute construction (§ 255. @). 


IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX. 309 


55. Time when, or within which, is expressed by the Ablative ; 
time how long by the Accusative (§ 256). 

56. The place from which is denoted by the Ablative with ab, 
dé, or ex; the place to which (the end of motion) by the 
Accusative with ad or in (§ 258. ¢). 

But names of towns or small islands from which, as also 
domus and rus, are put in the Ablative without a preposi- 

tion (§ 258.2). 
So also names of towns or small islands to which, as also 
domus and rus, are put in the Accusative without a prepo- 

: sition (§ 258. 0). 

57. The place where is denoted by the Ablative with the preposi- 
tion in (Locative Adlative); but names of towns and 
small islands are put in the Locative Case (§ 258. c). 
The Locative Case is also preserved in domi, belli, militiae, 

humi, foris, ruri, terra marique (§ 258.2). 

58. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be 
used with est and similar verbs (1) as the sudyect, (2) 
in apposition with the subject, or (3) as a predicate nomi- 
native (§ 270). 

59. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to 
complete their meaning take the Infinitive without a 
subject accusative, (Complementary Infinitive, § 271). 

60. The Infinitive, with subject accusative, is used with verbs 
and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and 

perceiving (Indirect Discourse, see g 272). 

61. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative, 
in narration and takes a subject in the Nominative 
(Historical Infinitive, § 275). 

62. SEQUENCE OF TENSES. In complex sentences, a primary 
tense in the main clause is followed by the Present or 
Perfect Subjunctive ; a secondary tense by the Imperfect 
or Pluperfect (§ 286). 

63. The tenses of the Infinitive denote time as present, past, or 
Suture with respect to the time of the verb on which they 
depend (§ 288). 


310 
64. 


65. 


66. 


67. 


68. 


69. 


70. 


71. 


72. 


73- 


74: 


75: 


IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX. 


PaRTICIPLES denote time as fresent, past, or future with 
respect to the time of the verb in their clause (§ 290). 
The GERUND and the GERUNDIVE are used, in the oblique 
cases, in many of the constructions of nouns (§ 297). 


For particulars, see §§ 298-301. 


The Former Supine (in -um) is used after verbs of motion 
to express Purpose (§ 302). 

The Latter SuPINE (in -@) is used only with a few adjec- 
tives, with the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, and rarely with 
verbs, to denote an action i reference to which the quality 
is asserted (§ 303). 

The Hortatory SuBJUNCTIVE is used to express an exhorta- 
tion, a command, a concession, or a condition (§ 266). 

The Subjunctive is used to express a wish. The present 
tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as ua- 
accomplished in present time, the pluperfect as umaccom- 
plished in past time (Optative Subjunctive, § 267). 

The Subjunctive is used in questions implying doubt, indig- 
nation, or an impossibility of the thing being done (Dedib- 
erative Subjunctive, § 268). 

Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by 
né with the second person of the Perfect Subjunctive, 
(2) by nOli with the Infinitive, (3) by cave with the Pres- 
ent or Perfect Subjunctive (§ 269. a). 

The Potential Subjunctive is used to denote an action not 
as actually performed, but as possible (§ 311.4). 

In both Protasis and Apodosis (1) simple conditiens take 
the present and past tenses of the Indicative; (2) future 
conditions take the future and future perfect Indicative 
and the present and perfect Subjunctive ; (3) conditions 
contrary to fact take the imperfect and pluperfect Sub- 
junctive (see §§ 306-311). 

Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum, introducing a Proviso, 
take the Subjunctive (§ 314). 

Finat clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti), 


79: 


80. 


81. 


82. 


83. 


84. 


$5; 


86. 


87. 


IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX. 311 


negative ne (ut né), or by a Relative (pronoun or adverb) 


($ 317)- 


. CONSECUTIVE clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by 


ut, so that (negative, ut non), or by a Relative (pronoun 
or adverb) (§ 319). 


. A Relative clause with the Subjunctive expresses a charac- 


teristic of the antecedent (§ 320). 


. Dignus, indignus, aptus, and iddneus take a clause of result 


with a relative (rarely with ut) (§ 320./). 

The Causal Particles quod, quia, and quoniam take the In- 
dicative when the reason is given on the authority of the 
speaker or writer; the Subjunctive when the reason is 
given on the authority of another (§ 321). 

Cum TEMPORAL, meaning when, takes the Imperfect and 
Pluperfect in the Subjunctive, other tenses in the Indica- 
tive ($ 325). 

Cum CAUSAL or CONCESSIVE takes the Subjunctive ($ 326). 

An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Subjunctive 
($ 334). 

In the INDIREcT Discourse the main clause of a Declara- 
tory Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accus- 
ative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive 
($ 336. 2). 

In the Indirect Discourse a veal question is generally put in 
the Subjunctive; a rhetorical question in the Infinitive 
($ 338). 

All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in 
Indirect Discourse (§ 339). 

A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive when it ex- 
presses the thought of some other person than the writer 
or speaker (/uformal Indirect Discourse, § 341). 

A clause depending on a Subjunctive clause or an equiva- 
lent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded 
as an integral part of that clause (Attraction, § 342). 


312 ORDER OF WORDS. §§ 343, 344-] 


6. ORDER OF WORDS. 


343. The Subject usually stands first in the sentence, 
the Predicate last. Thus, — 
Pausanias Lacedaemonius magnus hom sed varius in omni genefe vitae 
fuit. 
The verb is usually placed /as¢ of all, after all its modi- 
fiers. But it is often made /ast but one, followed by some 
single word of the predicate. 


844. In connected discourse the word most prominent 
in the speaker’s mind comes first, and so on in order of 
prominence, corresponding with the emphasis given in 
English by a graduated stress of voice. 


a. In any phrase the determining and most significant word comes 
first : as, — 


1. Adjective and Noun : — 


omnés hominés decet, EVERY man ought (opposed to some who do not). 

Licius Catilina ndbili genere natus fuit magn vi et animi et corporis sed 
ingenid malo pravoque (Sall. Cat. 5), Lucius Catiline was born of a 
NOBLE family, with GREAT force of mind and body, but with a NATURE 
that was evil and depraved. [Here the adjectives in the first part are 
the emphatic words, no antithesis between the nouns being as yet 
thought of; but in the second branch the zoux is meant to be 
opposed to those before mentioned, and so takes the prominent 
place. ] 


2. Word with modifying case : — 


lacrima nihil citius aréscit (Inv. i. 109), nothing dries quicker than a TEAR. 
ném6 feré laudis cupidus (De Or. i. 14), Aardly any one desirous of GLORY 
(cf. Manil. 7, avidi laudis, EAGER for glory). 


6. Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity, demonstrative, rela- 
tive, and interrogative pronouns, and adverbs usually precede the 
word or words to which they belong: as, — 

cum aliqua perturbatidne (Off. i. 137), with SOME disturbance. 

hic tind praestamus (De Or. i. 32), im THIS one thing we excel. 

céterae feré artés, the OTHER arts. 


§ 344.] ORDER OF WORDS. 313 


c. When sum is used as the Substantive verb (see § 172. note), 
it regularly stands first, or at any rate before its subject : as, — 


est viri magni pinire sontés (Off. i. 82), it is the duty of a great man to 
punish the guilty. 


d..The verb may come first, or have a prominent position either 
(1) because the dea in it is emphatic : as, — 

dicébat idem Cotta (Off. ii. 59), Cotta used to SAY the same thing (opposed 
to others’ boasting). 

idem fécit aduléscéns M. Antonius (id. ii. 49), the same thing was DONE 
by M. Antonius in his youth. [Opposed to dixi just before.] 

(2) or because the statement of the idea is emphatic: as, — 

nisi forte erunt digni calamitate (Off. ii. 62), unless perchance they REALLY 
DESERVE their misfortune. 


praesertim cum scribat (Panaetius) (id. iii. 8), especially when he DOES SAY 
(in his books). [Opposed to something omitted by him.] 


(3) or because the Zexse only is emphatic: as, — 


fuimus Troes, fuit [lium (Ain. ii. 325), we have ceased to be Trojans, Troy 
is now no more. 


e. Often the connection of two emphatic phrases is brought about 
by giving the precedence to the most prominent part of each and 
leaving the less prominent to follow in inconspicuous places : as, — 


pliirés solent esse causae (Off. i. 28), ‘here ave USUALLY SEVERAL reasons. 

qués amisimus civis eds Martis vis perculit (Marc. 17), WHAT /e//ow- 
citizens we have LOST, have been stricken down by the violence of war. 

maximas tibi omnés gratias agimus (Marc. 33), we ALL render you the 
WARMEST ¢hanks. . 


Jf. Antithesis between two pairs of ideas is indicated either (1) by 
placing the pairs in the same order (aninees) or (2) in exactly the 
opposite order (chiasmus). 


(1) rérum copia verborum cdpiam gignit (De Or. iii. 125), ABUNDANCE of 
MATTER Produces COPIOUSNESS of EXPRESSION. 

(2) légés supplicid improbds afficiunt, défendunt ac tuentur bonds (Leg. 
ii. 13), the Jaws VISIT PUNISHMENTS upon the WICKED, but the GOOD 
they DEFEND avd PROTECT. 


g. A modifier of a phrase or some part of it is often embodied 
within the phrase (cf. @) : as, — 


dé commini hominum memoria (Tuse. i. 59), «” regard to the UNIVERSAL 
- memory of man. 


314 ORDER OF WORDS. [$ 345- 


A. A favorite order with the poets is the zz¢erlocked, by which the 
attribute of one pair comes between the parts of another: as, — 

et superiect6 pavidae natarunt aequore damae (Hor. Od. i. 2. 11). 

z. Frequently unimportant words follow in the train of more em- 
phatic ones with which they are grammatically connected, and so 
acquire a prominence out of proportion to their importance : as, — 

dictitabat sé hortulds aliqués emere velle (Off. iii. 58), gave out that 

he wanted to buy some gardens. [Here aliqués is less emphatic than 
emere, but precedes it on account of the emphasis on hortulds.] 

j. The copula is generally felt to be of so little importance that it 
may come in anywhere where it sounds well ; but usually under 
cover of more emphatic words : as, — 

consul ego quaesivi, cum vods mihi essétis in codnsilid (R. P. iii. 28), as 

consul I held an investigation in which you attended me in council. 
falsum est id totum (id. ii. 28), that ts all false. 

k. Many expressions have acquired an invariable order: as, — 

rés publica ; populus Romanus; honGris causa ; piace tanti viri. 

Nore.— Thus, senatus populusque Romanus (S. P. Q. R.) originally 
stated with emphasis the official bodies, but became fixed so as to be the 
only permissible form of expression. 

2. The Romans had a fondness for emphasizing persons, so that a 
name or a pronoun often stands in an unduly emphatic place: as, — 

[dixit] vénalis quidem sé hortds non habére (Off. iii. 58), [said] ¢at 

he didn’t have any gardens for sale, to be sure. 

m. Kindred words, as in figdra etymologica, often come together : 

ita s€nsim sine sénsii aetas senéscit (C. M. 38), thus gradually, without 

being perceived, man’s life grows old. 


SPECIAL RULES. 


845. The following are special rules of arrangement :— 


a. I. Prepositions (except tenus and versus) regularly precede 
their nouns ; 2. but a monosyllabic preposition is often placed be- 
tween a noun and its adjective or limiting genitive : as, — 

quem ad modum; quam ob rem; magnd cum meti; omnibus cum 

copiis ; nila in ré (cf. § 344. 7). 

6. Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence or clause ; enim, 

autem, vérd, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes third 


§ 346.] STRUCTURE OF THE PERIOD. 315 


if the second word is emphatic ; quidem, never first, but after the 
emphatic word ; né... quidem include the emphatic word or words. 

¢. Inquam, inquit are always used parenthetically, following one 
or more words. So, often, cr6d6, opinor, and in poetry precor. 

d. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if it 
belongs to no one word in particular, it generally precedes the verb ; 
if it is especially emphatic, it begins the sentence. 

e. In the arrangement of clauses, the relative clause often comes 
first in Latin, and, if so, usually contains the antecedent noun: as, — 

quds 4misimus civis, eds MaArtis vis perculit (Marc. 17), those citizens 

whom we have lost, etc. 


STRUCTURE OF THE PERIOD. 


Norte. — Latin, unlike modern languages, expresses the relation of 
words to each other by zz/flection rather than by position. Hence its struct- 
ure not only admits of great variety in the arrangement of words, but is 
especially favorable to that form of sentence which is called a Period. In 
a period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and is held in 
suspense till the delivery of the last word. 

An English sentence does not often exhibit this form of structure. It 
was imitated, sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the 
earlier writers of English prose ; but its effect is better seen in poetry, in 
such a passage as the following : — 


“* High on a throne of royal state, which far 
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, 
Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand, 
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, 
Satan exalted sat.”” — Paradise Lost, Book II. 1-5. 


But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly 
give short, clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one 
thing by itself. In Latin, on the contrary, the story or argument is viewed 
as a whole; and the logical relation among all its parts is carefully indi- 
cated. Hence, — 


346. In the structure of the Period, the following 
rules are to be observed :— 


a. In general the main subject or object is put in the main clause, 
not in a subordinate one (according to § 344): as, — 


Hannibal cum rec€énsuisset auxilia Gadés profectus est, when Hannibal 
had reviewed, etc. 


316 ORDER OF WORDS. [§ 346. 


6, Clauses are usually arranged in the order of prominence in the 
mind of the speaker; so, usually, cause before result; purpose, 
manner, and the like, before the act. 

c. In co-ordinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are frequently 
omitted (asyndeton). In such cases the connection is made clear 
by some antithesis indicated by the position of words. 

@. A change of subject, when required, is marked by the intro- 
duction of a pronoun, if the new subject has already been mentioned. 
But such change is often purposely avoided by a-change in structure, 

'— the less important being merged in the more important by the aid 
of participles or of subordinate phrases : as, — 

quem ut barbari incendium effiigisse vidérunt, télis minus émissis inter- 

fécérunt, when the barbarians saw that he had escaped, THEY threw 
darts at HIM and killed HIM. 

celeriter cénfect6 negotid, in hiberna legidnés revertérunt, the matter was 

soon finished, AND the legions, etc. 


e. So the repetition of a noun, or the substitution of a pronoun for 
it, is avoided, unless a different case is required: as, — 
dolirem si n6n poteré frangere occultab6, 7f 7 cannot conquer the pain, 1 
will hide vr. (Cf. if L cannot conquer, J will hide the pain.) 
f. The Romans were careful to close a period with an agreeable 
succession of long and short syllables. Thus, — 


quod scis nihil prodest, quod nescis multum obest (Or. 166), what you 
know is of no use, what you do not know does great harm. 


\ ped bel gre Quo HUyell OL VA pie iv : 





SLR OUD | ey 


§ 347-] . GENERAL RULES. 317 


PART THIRD.—PROSODY (RULES OF VERSE). 
h Vv 
Qtr Gur Ong G ha. 


1. QUANTITY. 


‘ 
1. General Rules. 


847. The following are General Rules of Quantity (cf. 
§ 18) :— 





} , . 4 VOwEL. A vowel before another vowel or h is short : as, via, 
t SI 5. . P 
Exceptions. ''1. In the genitive form -ius, i is long, except usually 


in alterius. sg cee nullius. It is, however, sometimes made 
short ir in verse (§ 83. 4). ea 
2. In the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension, e is 
long between two vowels ; as, , digi; but it is short in fid6i, réi, spéi; 
a is long before i in the old genitive of the first declension : as, aulai, 
S 3. Inth conjugation of fi0, i is long except when followed by er. © 
Thus, fi6, am, Se but fieri, fierem ; so, also, fit. 
LS 4. In many Greek words the vowel in Latin represents a long 
vowel or diphthong, and retains its original long quantity : as, nibte 
(Tpies), Thalia oka athe Cjpues) T (dp): 
4 5. In.éh Sheu an dines, and sometimes in- Diana and Ghe, the first 
vowel is long. 


“| 6 DiputuonG. A Diphthong is long: as, foedus, cti, déinde. 








EXCEPTION. The preposition prae in compounds is generally 
shortened before a vowel: as, prae-istis (En. vii. 524), prae-eunte 
(id. v. 186). 


C4 
oT 





¢. CONTRACTION. A vowel formed by contraction (crasis). is 
long : as, nil, from nihil; currtis, genitive for curruis. 


But often two syllables are united by Synzresis without contraction : as 
when p&riétibiis is pronounced paryéttbus. 


4. d@. Position. A vowel, though short, followed by two consonants __ 
or a double consonant, makes a long syllable : as, adventus, cortex. 














VY WA BY) S, SO Ab Se SN, 
318 S sA/Y PW, QUANTITY. ’ [§ 348. 


But if the two consonants are a mute followed by! or r, the syllable 
may be either long or short (common) ; as, alacris or alacris; patris 
or patris, 


_/ Nove-r-—= Any vowel before i consonant makes a long syllable (except 
v G in biiugis, quadriiugis). 

«_.NoTrEe?.— The compounds of iacié, though written with one i, com- 

monly retain the long vowel of the prepositions with which they are com- 

pounded, as if before a consonant, and lengthen the short as if by Position. 

(But how the syllables were pronounced is uncertain.) Thus, — 


obicis hosti (at the end of a hexameter, Ain. iv. 549). 

inicit et saltii (at the beginning of a hexameter, Ain. ix. 552). 

proice téla mani (at the beginning of a hexameter, /En. vi. 836). 

REMARK. — The y or w sound resulting from syx@resis has the effect of 
a consonant in making position : as, abietis (abyetis), fluyidrum (/uvyorum). 
Conversely, when the semivowel Becomes a vowel, position is lost: as, 
siliiae, for silvae. C, ‘ x } Ke vA < i Nee ae} ia Ob UUW = 


s 


KA en ‘dy Ug tty eb > Syllab 
848. The ates of Final ae is determined by 
the following Rules :— : 
1. Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long: as, m6, tu, hi, né. 
The attached particles -né, -qué, -vé, -c6, -pté, and ré- (réd-) are 
short ; sé- is long. Thus, sacédit, exercitumqué rédicit. But re- 
is often long in réligid (x 6), rétuli (rettuli), répuli (reppuli). 
2. Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are long: as, s6l, Ss 
(Sris), bs, par, vis. 








“\EXcEPTIONS. cdr (sometimes long), fél, lac, mél, 5s (ossis), vir, 
tot, quot. 

3. Most monosyllabic Particles are short: as, an, in, cis, néc. 
But 4c, cras, clr, 6n, non, quin, sin—— with adverbs in c: as, hic, 
hiic, sic — are long. 

4. Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the abla- 
tive siapular of the first declension ; in all other words final a is long. 
Thus, ea stella (nom.), cum ea stella (abl.) ; friistra, voca (imperat.), 
postea, triginta. 

EXCEPTIONS. 618, ita, quia, puta (suppose): and, in late use, 
triginta, etc. 





PO re Lyduing AMO CAWER CULE me 


§ 348.] FINAL SYLLABLES. 319 


5. Final e is short rt, as in nUbé, dicité, saepe. Except — 





. In nouns of the fifth declension : as, fidé (also famé), hodié 
eaci dié), quaré (qua ré). [ZZ 
2. In Greek neuters plural of the second declension : as, cété. \ 

3. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second 
declension, with others of like form : as, alté, miseré, aperté, saepis- 
simé. So, feré, fermé, probably of same origin. 

4. Inthe imperative singular of the second conjugation: as, vidé. 

! 





EXCEPTIONS. To 3: bené, malé; inferné, superné. To 4: 
sometimes, cavé, habé, tacé, valé, vidé. 

6. Final i is long : as in turti, fili, audi. 

But it is common in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi; and short in nisi, 
quasi, cui (when making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives, as 
Alexi. 

7. Final o is common Bat long in datives and ablatives, also, 
almost invariably, in verbs, and in nouns of the third declension. 





EXCEPTIONS. citd, modd (adverb), ilicd, profectd, dummodé, 
imm6, eg6, dud, octo. 
8. Final uis long. Final y is short. 
9. Final as, és, os, are long ; final is, us, ys, are short; as. nefas, 
rupés, servos (acc.), honds; hostis, amiciis, Tethys. 





EXCEPTIONS. as is short in Greek plural ace accusatives, as lampa- 
das; and in anas. 

es is short in nouns of the third declension (lingual) having a short 
vowel in the stem!: as, as, milés (itis, ), obsés (-idis), — except abiés, 
ariés, pariés, pés; in the present of esse (€s, adés); in the prepo- 
sition penés, and in the e plural of Greek 1 nouns, as hérdés, lampadés. 

os is short in compos, | impos; in the Greek nominative ending, as 
barbitds ; also; in the old nominative ending of the second declension, 
as servOs (later, servus). 

~ is in plural cases is long, a as in bonis, nObis, vobis, omnis (accu- 
sative plural). 

is is long in fis, sis, vis (with quivis, etc.), velis, malis, nolis; in 
the second person singular of the fourth conjugation, as audis and 
sometimes in the forms in -eris (perfect subjunctive). 


1 The quantity of the stem-vowel may be seen in the genitive singular. 





- 


( 


320 QUANTITY. [$§ 349, 350. 


us is long (by contraction) in the genitive singular and nominative, 
accusative, and vocative plural of the fourth declension ; and in nouns 
of the third declension sige: Sop (long) in the stem : as, virtiis (-Uitis), 
incts (-Udis). But, pecis, -tdis. 

10. Of other final syllables, those_ending in a consonant, except 
-c, are short. Thus, amat, amatur; but, istiic, aléc. 


y f: AERP ERZIONS. danke, fac, néc, sometimes ne aér, aethér, cratér, 


3. Penultimate Syllables. 











849. A noun or adjective is said to zucrease, when in 
any case it has more syllables than in the nominative 
singular. 

A verb is said to increase, when in any part it has 
more syllables than in the stem. Thus, améa-tis (stem, 
ama-), tegi-tis (stem, tege-), capi-unt (stem, capi-). 


In such words as stellarum, corporis, amatis, tegitis, the penul- 
timate syllable is called the zwcrement. In itinéribus, amavéritis, 
the syllables with the quantities marked are called the first, second, 
and third increments of the noun or verb. 


Note. —In such words as Iippiter,’ vis; senex, sénis, the syllables 
whose vowel-quantity is marked are called increments. These forms must 
be referred to lost nominatives from the same stems. So itineribus has 
really only two increments as from ftitinus. 


ae 

350. ie merements of oun. and Adjectives, a and o 
are ‘generally long ; (ei, a, y, generally short: as, — 

aetas, aetatis; honor, honOris; servos, servGrum; opus, opéris; 
carmen, carminis; murmur, murmiris; pecus, pecidis; chlamys, 
chlamydis. Exceptions are — 

a: shortin baccar (-aris), hépar (-atis), iubar (-aris), lar ( Eran 
mas (méaris), nectar (-aris), par (paris), sal (salis), vas (wai ais), 
daps (dapis), fax (facis), anthrax (-acis). 

Ny o: short in ne third declension” (except Os, Gris): as, 
corpus (-dris); also in arbor (-dris), scrobs (scrdbis), ops (Spis), 


b6s (bévis), memor (-dris), Itppiter (Id6vis), Hector (-dris), and 
compounds of -piis (as, triptis, -pddis). 





A ee 


ea 


§ 351-] PENULTIMATE SYLLABLES. 321 


e: long in increments of fifth deelension : as, diés, diéi; also in 
hérés (-Gdis), léx (légis), locuplés (-étis), mercés (-édis), plébs 
(plébis), quiés (-6tis), réx (régis), vér (véris), cratér (-éris). But 
see § 347. 2. 

i: long in most nouns and adjectives in ix: as, félicis, radicis 
(except filix, nix, strix); also in dis (ditis), glis (gliris), lis (litis), 
vis (virés), Quirités, Samnités. 

-u: long in forms from nouns in -tis: as, paliis, paltidis; telliis, 
telliris ; virtts, virtttis; also in liix, licis; [frux], frigis ; fur, furis. 


851. In the increment of Verbs the characteristic 
vowels are as follows: — 


1. In the first conjugation 4: as, amare, amatur. 

2. In the second conjugation 6: as, monére, monétur. 
3. In the third conjugation 8, 1: as, tegére, tegitur. 

4. In the fourth conjugation i: as, audire, auditur. 


EXCEPTION. d6 and its compounds have &a: as, dare, circumdabat. 


a. In other verbal increments (not stem-vowels) — 
a is always long: as, monearis, tegamus. 
e is long: as, tegébam, audiébar. 


Note. — But e is short before -ram, -rim, -r6; in the future personal 
endings -béris, -bére ; and sometimes in the perfect -érunt (as, stétéruntque 
comae, Ain. ii. 774). 


i is long in forms which follow the analogy of the fourth conjuga- 
tion: as, petivi, lacessitus (in others, short: as, monitus) ; also in 
the subjunctive present of esse and velle (simus, velimus) ; and 
(rarely) in the endings -rimus, -ritis. It is short in the future forms 
amabitis, etc. 

o is found only in imperatives, and is long : as, monétote, etc. 

u is short in stmus, voliimus, quaesiimus; in the Supine and its 
derivatives it is long: as, solittrus. 

6. Perfects and Supines of two syllables lengthen the first syllable: 
as, itvi, iitum (itivd), vidi, visum (vided) ; figi (figis). 

EXCEPTIONS. bibi, dédi, fidi, scidi, st&ti, stiti, tii; — citum, 
datum, itum, litum, quitum, ratum, riitum, satum, situm, statum. 
In some compounds of st6, statum is found long, as pr6statum. 


322 RHYTHM. [§§ 352-355. 


c. In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short ; 
the following syllable is, also, usually short : as, cécidi (cad6), didici 
(discS), pupiigi (pungS), cticurri (currd), tétendi (tendd), mémordi 
(mordeS). But, cécidi from caedd, pepédi from pédo. 


352. The following terminations are generally pre- 
ceded by a long vowel: — 

ay -brum, -crum, -trum: as, lavacrum, délibrum, vératrum. 

2. -Na, -ne, -nis: as, carina, mane, inanis. 

3. -re, -ris, -ta, -tis: as, altare, saliitaris, mOnéta, immitis. 

858. The following terminations are preceded by a 
short vowel :— 

I. -cus, -dus (with some exceptions), -lus: as, rlsticus, calidus, 
gladidlus. 

2. -tas (in nouns), -ter and -tus (in adverbs): as, civitas, fortiter, 


vow 


penitus. i 

3. -culus, -cellus, -lentus, -ttidd: as, fasciciilus, Scellus, liciilen- 
tus, magnitido. 

354. Rules for the quantity of Derivatives are — 


a.-Forms from the same STEM regularly have the same quantity : 
as, am0, Aamavisti; génus, géneris. 

6. COMPOUNDS retain the quantity of the words which compose 
them : as, oc-cidd (cAdd), oc-cidd (caedS), in-icus (aecus). 


ye os 
2. RHYTHM. 





1. Measures. 


855. Rhythm consists in the recurrence in musical 
sound of accent at regular intervals. These intervals are 
called MEASURES Or FEET. 

The most natural measures of musical time consist of 
either two or three equal parts. But the ancients also 
distinguished measures of five parts. 


REMARK. — In poetry these intervals are taken up by enunciated syllables 
which in Latin have a definite length or quantity. 


§§ 356-358-] THE MUSICAL ACCENT. 323 


a. The unit of length in Prosody is one short syllable. This is 
called a Mora. Itis represented by the sign U, or may be repre- 
sented in musical notation by the guaver (@). 

6. A long syllable is regularly equal to two more, and is represented 
by the sign _, or may be represented by the crotchet (7): 

356. The measures most frequently employed in Latin 
verse, together with their musical notation, are the follow- 
ing :— 

a. TRIPLE OR UNEQUAL MEASURES (3). 

1. TROCHEE (4.U° = f 6): as, régis. 

7 f): as, dicés. 
3. TRIBRACH (YU Uv = pep): as, hominis. 


2. IAMBUS) (Vv 4 


5. DOUBLE OR EQUAL MEASURES (3). 
i DACHIL? (4 re cc Ef): as, cénsilis. 
2. ANAPEST (VU VU 4>= id f): as, monitos. 


3. SPONDEE (4_ = ¢ f): as, régés. 


For the more complex measures, see larger grammar. 


357. In most cases measures of the same time may 
be substituted for each other, a long syllable taking the 
place of two short ones, or two short ones the place of 
one long one. Thus, a Spondee (——) may take the 
place of a Dactyl (— vu v). 


2. The Musical Accent. 


858. That part of the measure which receives the stress 
of votce (the musical accent) is called the TueEsis; the 
unaccented part is called the ArsIs. 


a. The stress of voice laid upon the Loree is called the Ictus 
(deat). It is marked thus: 4 vu v. 


324 VERSIFICA TION. [§ 359. 


-6. The ending of a word within a measure is called CasuRa. 
When this coincides with a rhetorical pause, it is called the Cesura 
of the verse, and is of main importance as affecting the melody or 
rhythm 


3. VERSIFICATION. 
THE VERSE. 


859. A single line of poetry —that is, a series of meas- 
ures (feet) set in a known order — is called a VERSE. 


a. A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called CATALECTIC, 
that is, having a pause to fill the measure ; when the end syllable is 
not lacking, the verse is called ACATALECTIC, and has no such pause. 

&. To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to 
the rules of quantity and versification, is called scanning or scansion 
(scansio, from scand6, a climbing or advance by steps). 


REMARK. — In reading verse rhythmically, care should be taken to pre- 
serve the measure or time of the syllables, but at the same time not to 
destroy or confuse the words themselves, as is often done in scanning. 


c. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless 
an interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins 
with a vowel or with h. This is called ELIsIon. 

_ In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. Strictly, 
however, they should be sounded lightly. 


final -m, with the pr ing vowel, is is suppressed Lin like’ man-_ 
ner when the next. ‘word. begins~with~a—vowel- -or h: this is called 


‘ECTHEIPSIS : as, — 


monstr«m hotrendw, inform,, ingéns, a Sinen atkamctons: 
—#n. iii. 658. 
é. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has 
a special emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This omission is 
called Hiatus. In such cases the final vowel is sometimes shortened. 
J. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before 
a pause; it is then said to be long by Déastolé: as, — 


nostror“” obruimur, — oritutque miserrima caedés. 


g. The last syllable of a verse may be either long or short. 


§§ 360-362.] DACTYLIC HEXAMETER.. 325 


FORMS OF VERSE. 


360. A verse receives its name from its dominant or 
fundamental measure ; as, Dactylic, lambic, Trochaic, Ana- 
pestic; and from the number of measures (single or 
double) which it contains: as, Hexameter, Tetrameter, 
Trimeter, Dimeter. 

REMARK. —Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapzstic verses are measured not 
by single feet, but by pairs (dipodia), so that six Iambi make a 7rimeter. 

361. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite num- 
ber of verses ranged in a fixed order. 


1. Dactylic Hexameter. 


862. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroze Verse, consists 
theoretically of six dactyls. It may be represented thus :— 


Pere err Teh ols ON Le eS 


or in musical notation as follows :— 


IPRPIPEPIPIOPIPOPIPCPIPE 


a. For any one of the feet, except the fifth, a spondee may be 
substituted. The last foot is a trochee standing for a dactyl, but the 
final syllable is not measured, and the foot is called a spondee. 

Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth place ; the verse is then 
called spondaic. Thus in Ecl. iv. 49 the verse ends with incrémentum. 

é. The hexameter has always one principal cesura — sometimes 
two — almost always accompanied by a pause in the sense. 

The principal casura is usually after the thesis (masculine), less 
commonly zz the arsis (feminine) of the third foot, dividing the 
verse into two parts. 

It may also be after the thesis (less commonly ix the arsis) of the 
fourth foot. In this case there is often another czsura in the second 
foot, so that the verse is divided into three parts instead of two: as, — 


parté fé | rdx || ar | dénsque dcii | lis || et | sibila | colla. —x. v. 277. 


REMARK. — Often the only indication of the frizcipal gmong a number 
of czsuras is the break in the sense. 


326 . VERSIFICA TION. [§ 363. 


c. The introductory verses of the Aineid, divided according to the 
foregoing rules, will appear as follows. The principal czesura in each 
verse is marked by double. lines : — 

Arma vi | rumqué c& |nd || Trd | iae qui | primiis 4b | Gris 
- [tli | am fa | td prdfii| gus || La| vinzaqué | vénit 
litéra, | mult ille | et ter| ris || iac | tatis ét | alto 
vi suipé | riim sae | vae || mém6| rem Iii | ndnis Sb | iram ; 
multa qué | que et bel |16 pas| sus || dum | condérét | urbém, 
infer | retqué dé | ds Lati| 6, || géniis | undé La|tinum, 
Alba | niqué pa | trés, || at | que altae | moenia | Romae. 


The feminine cesura is seen in the following :— 
Dis géni| ti poti| ré: || té| nent médi | 2 omnia | silvae. - 8 
' 2 — EN. Vi. 131.” 
2. Elegiac Stanza. 


863. The Elegiac Stanza consists of two lines, —an 
hexameter followed by a pentameter.! : 

The Pentameter verse is the same as the hexameter, . 
except that it omits the last half of the third foot and of 
the sixth foot. Thus,— 


Loo|tsco(ZAlzvy vituv fear 


rerirerir -lrerlirerie® 


a. The Pentameter verse is thus to be scanned as two half-verses, 
the second of which always consists of two dactyls followed by a 
single syllable. , 

6. The Pentameter has no Cesura; but the first half-verse must 
always end with a word, followed by a pause to complete the measure.” 

c. The following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac 
Stanza : — 





1 Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, 
into five feet (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapests), as 
follows :— . 

Paw er As of PS aor eee 


2 The time of this pause, however, may be filled by the protraction of 
the preceding syllable : thus, — 


uns Pee iw | arb oa Pe LR 


§§ 364-376.] RECKONING OF TIME. 327 


a cum sibit | illi| us tris | tissima | noctis i| mag6 
qua mihi | supré| mum { || tempiis in | urbé fi | it, 
cum répé | td noc|.tem qua | tot mihi | cara ré | liqui, 
- ie labitir | ex dcii| lis A || nunc quéqué | gutta mé | is. 
iam propé | lix adé| rat qua | mé dis | cédéré | Caesar 
finibiis | extré | mae 7 || itissérat | Ausdni| ae. 
— OVID, 7rist. i. 3. 


364-375. For these sections showing other forms of verse, and 
for the metres of Horace, see the larger grammar. 


f MISCELLANEOUS. 
I. RECKONING OF TIME. 


_ Notr.—The Roman Year was designated, in earlier times, by the 
names.of the Consuls; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of 

the City (ab urbe condité, anno urbis conditae), the date of which was 
assigned by Varro to a period corresponding with B.c. 753. In order, 
therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of 
the city is to be subtracted from 754: ¢.g. A.U.C. 691 = B.C. 63. _ 

Before Czsar’s reform of the Calendar (B.c. 46), the Roman year con- 
sisted of 355 days; March, May, Quintilis (July), and October having each 
31 days ; February having 28, and each of the remainder 29. The “ Julian 

year,” by Czesar’s reformed Calendar, had 365 days, divided into months 

-as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (vi. kal. Mart.) was 

‘ counted twice, giving 29 days to that month: hence the year was called 
Bissextilis. The month Quintilis received the name /i#/ius (July), in 
honor of Julius Cesar; and Sextilis was called Augustus (August), in 
honor of his successor. The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged 
till the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar. 


376. Dates, according to the Roman Calendar, are 
reckoned as follows :— a. 


a. The frst day of the month was called Kalendae (Ca/ends). 
é. On the Sifteenth day of March, May, july, and Ocha 
thirteenth of the others Wereuth@ddingides), the day of Full Moon. 
_¢. On the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, but the 
Jifth of the other months, were the Nonae (Nones or ninths). 
@. From the three points thus determined, the days of the month 
were reckoned backwards, as so many days before the, ones, the 


Ides, or the Calends. The point of departure was, by Roman custom, 
counted in the reckoning, the second day being three days before, etc.: — 





328 MISCELLANEOUS. [§ 376. 


Hence if the given date be Calends, add ¢wo to the number of days 


in the month preceding, — if Noples or Ides, add one to that of the day 
| 


on which they fall;—and from this sum subtract the given date : thus,— 
viii. Kal. Feb. (33-8) = Jan. 25. 
iv. Non. Mar. (8-4) == Mar. 4. 
iv. Id. Sept. (14-4) = Sept. 10. 








é. The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as thus 
ascertained, are given in the following Table : — 


January. February. March. April. 

1. Kau. IAN. KAL. FEB. KAL. MARTIAE KAL. APRILEs 

2. Iv. Non. Ian. Iv. Non. Feb. vi. Non. Mart. Iv. Non. Apr. 

i Ome t apa AEN 8 | CRO x Voss gS Mie oF S 

4. prid. “ “ prid. “ “ Iv. “ “ prid. “ “ 

5. Non. IAN. NON. FEB. if * “ NON. APRILES 

6. vir. Id. Ilan. vit. Id. Feb. prid. “ * vu. Id. Apr. 

2S, ECS § + Cl nis NON MARTIAE II. “ 

ae Nall disale 2 “lates Vit. Td: Mart) = vig. #2" % 

9. Vv. “ “ Vv. “ iti VII. “ “ Vv. “ “ 
eae et eve OE nl sia Wi eae 
oR ORR I ai 5 NA Nes oe 
i, rtd, 2S prt, > 4 st poe pra: 7% 
13. IpUs IAN. IpUs Fes. BAYS IpUs ApRILEs. 
14. XIX. Kal. Feb. xvi. Kal. Martias prid. “ “ xvill. Kal. Maias. 
iam... * xy“ 2 IpUs MARTIAE xviI. “ s 
PO. Nits 2 Rev “ xvul. Kal. Aprilis. xvi.“ a 
if, ever OE A % > ai saMlES 6 Whee 
ieee ee ee -« PS a lead 1, Pipe, “ 
19 XIV “ “ XI “ec “ XIV. “ “ XIII “ “ec 
Sa eX é ¥. 0 | Hos ee 2 = 
21 XII “ “ IX. “ “ XII “ “ xI ‘ “ 
22. XI “ “ VIII. “ “ XI “ “ x “ “ec 
23 x “ “ec VII. “ “ X, “ “ 1X “ “ 
24 IX “ “ Vi. “ “ IX “ “ee VIII “ “ 
25 VIII “ “ee Vv. “ “ VIII “ “ VIL “ “ 
26. VII “ 6 IV. “ “ VII “ “ VI “ “ 
yy ae, Cahir sear aceae | | ina a vi. 4 phen i Se 
28. v. “ “ prid. “ “ Vv. « “ Iv. “ “ 
29, IV.) tprid Kal Mart, = ry... ies ¢ t 6 rf « 
30.155... = O45 Sn teap-year, the: = “11° >'.)** ey coprid 7s & 


31. prid. “ “ vi. Kal.(24th) being prid. “ es (So June, Sept., 
(So. Aug., Dec.) counted twice. ] (So May, July,Oct.) Nov.) 


§§ 377; 380.| MEASURES OF VALUE. 329 


Nore. — Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (B.c. 46) would be 
found not by the above table, but by taking the earlier reckoning of the 
number of days in the month. 


Il, MEASURES OF VALUE, ETC. 


377. The money of the Romans was in early times wholly of cop- 
per. The unit was the as, nominally a pound in weight, but actually 
somewhat less. It was divided into twelve unciae (oumces). 

In the third century B.c. the as was gradually reduced to one-half 
of its original value. In the same century silver coins were intro- 
duced, —the Dénarius = 10 asses ; and the Séstertius = 21 asses. 


378. The Sestertius was probably introduced at a time when the 
as had been so far reduced that the value of the new coin (2} asses) 
was equivalent to the original value of the as. Hence, the Sestertius 
(usually abbreviated to IIS or HS) came to be used as the unit of 
value, and nummus, coi, often means simply séstertius. As the 
reduction of the standard went on, the sestertius became equivalent to 
4 asses. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to 100 
sesterces. The value of these coins is seen in the following table: — 

2} asses =I séstertius or nummus (HS), value nearly 5 cents. 
IO asses or 4 séstertii—1dé€narius . . “* “ 20 cents. 
1000. séstertii==1 séstertium . . . . «.. ™ “© $50.00. 

Norte. — The word séstertius is a shortened form of sémis-tertius, ¢he 
third one,a half. The abbreviation IIS or HS = duo et sémis, 2}, two and 
a half. 

379. The Séstertium (probably originally the genitive plural of 
séstertius) was a sum of money, not a coin; the word is inflected 
regularly as a neuter noun: thus, tria séstertia = $150.00. 

When séstertium was combined with a numeral adverb, centéna 
milia (hundreds of thousands) was originally understood: thus 
deciéns séstertium (deciéns HS) = $50,000. But later séstertium was 
inflected as a neuter singular, as deciéus séstertid, etc.. 

In the statement of large sums séstertium is often omitted : thus 
sexagiéns (Rosc. Am. 2) signifies, serdgiéus [centéna milia] séster- 
tium (6,000,000 sesterces) = $300,000 (nearly). 

380. In the statement of sums of money in cipher, a line above 
the number indicates thousands ; lines above and at the sides also, 
hundred-thousands. Thus HS. DC. = 600 séstertii; HS. DC. = 
600,000 séstertit, or 600 séstertia ; HS. Joc] = 60,000,000 séstertii. 


330 MISCELLANEOUS. [$§ 381-384. 


381. The Roman Measures of Length are the following : — 


12 inches (u#ciae) = 1 Roman Foot (és: 11.65 English inches). 
1} Feet =1 Cubit (cuditum).—2} Feet=1 Degree or Step (gradus). 
5 Feet =1 Pace (fassus).— 1000 Paces (mille passuum)=1 Mile. 


The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet. 

The /a#gerum, or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 
(Roman) feet long and 120 broad ; a little less than 2 of an English 
acre. 


382. The Measures of Weight are— 


I2 unciae (ounces) = 1 Pound (/bra, about ¢ lb. avoirdupois). 


Fractional parts (weight or coin) are — 


I. (yg), wncia. 5: (v5), guincunx. 9. (3), dodrans. 
2. (%), sextans. — 6. (4), sémissis. 10. (3), dextans. 
3. ()), guadrans. 7» (x), septunx. 11. (44), deunx. 
4. (3), triéns. 8. (2), déssis. 12. as. 


The Talent (¢alentum) was a Greek weight (rddavrov) = 60 librae. 


383. The Measures of Capacity are — 


12 cyathi = 1 sextdrius (nearly a pint). 
16 sextarii == 1 modius (peck). 

6 sextarii = 1 comgius (3 quarts, liquid measure). 
8 congii=1 amphora (6 gallons). 


884. The following are some of the commonest abbreviations 
found in Latin inscriptions and sometimes in editions of the classic 
authors. _ 


A., absolvé, antiquo. F., filius, fastus. 

A. U., annd urbis. Ictus., 2#r7sconsultus. 

A. U. C., ab urbe condita. Id., zdas. 

C., condemnd, comitidlis. imp., zmperdtor. 

cos., consul (consule). I. O. M., Jovi optimd maximo. 
coss., consulés (consulibus). K., Kal., Kalendae. 

D., divus. N., epos, nefastus. 

D. D., dond dedit. N. L., dn ligieet. 

D. D. D., dat, dicat, dedicat. P. C., patrés conscripti. 

des., désignatus. pl., plédzs. 

D. M., dit manés. pont. max., pontifex maximus. 


eq. Rom., egues Romanus. pop., populus. 


§ 384.] MEASURES OF VALUE. 331 


P. R., populus Romanus. 

pr., praetor. 

proc., prdconsul. 

Q. B. F. F.Q. S., quod bonum felix 
Saustumque sit. 

Quir., Quiritgs. 

resp., réspublica, respondet. 

S., salitem, sacrum, senatus. ° 


S. C., sendtus consultum. 

S. D. P., salitem dicit plirimam., 

S. P. Q. R., Sendtus Populusque Ro- 
manus. 

S. V. B. E. E. V., st valés bene est, ego 
valed. 

pl. tr., tribuinus plébis. 

U. (U. R.), tt rogas. 


GLOSSARY 


OF TERMS USED IN GRAMMAR, RHETORIC, AND* PROSODY. 
aS oro 


NoTE. — Many of these terms are pedantic names given by early gram- 
marians to forms of speech used naturally by writers who were not con- 
scious that they were using figures at all — as, indeed, they were not. Thus, 
when one says, “ It gave me no little pleasure,” he is unconsciously using 
Litotes ; when he says, “ John went up the street, James down,” Antithesis ; 
when he says, “ High as the sky,” Hyperbole. Many were given under a 
mistaken notion of the nature of the usage referred to. Thus méd and téd 
(§ 98. c) were supposed to owe their d to Paragoge, simpsi its p to Zpen- 
thesis. Such a sentence as “See my coat, how well it fits!” was supposed 
to be an irregularity to be accounted for by Prolepsis. 

Many of these, however, are convenient designations for phenomena 
which often occur; and most of them have a historic interest, of one kind 
or another. 


385. I. GRAMMATICAI., TERMS. 


Anacoluthon : a change of construction in the same sentence, leav- 
ing the first part broken or unfinished. 

Anastrophe: inversion of the usual order of words. 

Apodosis ; the conclusion of a conditional sentence (see Protasis). 

Archaism ; an adoption of old or obsolete forms. 

Asyndeton : omission of conjunctions (§ 208. 0). 

Barbarism : adoption of foreign or unauthorized forms. 

Brachylogy : brevity of expression. 

Crasis: contraction of two vowels into one (§ Io. ¢). 

Ellipsis: omission of a word or words necessary to complete the 
sense (§ 177. note). 

Enallage: substitution of one word or form for another. 

Epenthesis: insertion of a letter or syllable (§ 11. ¢). 

Hellenism ; use of Greek forms of constructions. 

Hendiadys (év 84 Svotv): the use of two nouns, with a conjunc- 
tion, instead of a single modified noun. 


§ 386.] GLOSSARY. 333 


Hypallage ; interchange of constructions. 
Hysteron proteron: a reversing of the natural order of ideas. 


Applied to cases where the natural sequence of events is violated in 
language because the later event is of more importance than the earlier 
and so comes first to the mind. This was supposed to be an artificial 
embellishment in Greek, and so was imitated in Latin. It is still found in 

_ artless narrative ; cf. ‘‘ Bred and Born in a Brier Bush” (Uncle Remus). 


Metathesis : transposition of letters in a word (§ II. @). 

Paragoge :; addition of a letter or letters to the end of a word. 

Parenthesis : insertion of a phrase interrupting the construction. 

‘Periphrasis ; a roundabout way of expression (circumlocution). 

Pleonasm: the use of needless words. 

Polysyndeton : the use of an unnecessary number of copulative con- 
junctions. 

Prolepsis : the use of a word in the clause preceding the one where 
it would naturally appear (anticipation). 

Protasis ; a clause introduced by a conditional expression (zf, when, 
whoever), leading to a conclusion called the Apodoszs (§ 304). 

Syncope: omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a word. 

Synesis (constrictid ad sénsum) : agreement of words according to 
the sense, and not the grammatical form (§ 182). 

Tmesis: the separation of two parts of a compound word by other 
words (cutting). 

Zeugma: the use of a verb with two different words, to only one of 
which it strictly applies (yokzng). 


386. II. RHETORICAL FIGURES. 


Allegory: a narrative in which abstract ideas figure as circum- 
stances, events, or persons, in order to enforce some moral truth. 
Alliteration: the use of several words that begin with the same 
sound. 
Analogy : argument from resemblances. 
( Anaphora: the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive 
clauses (§ 344. /). 
Antithesis : opposition, or contrast of parts (for emphasis, § 344). 
(Antonomasia : use of a proper for a common noun, or the reverse. 
A posiopesis : an abrupt pause for rhetorical effect. 
Catachresis: a harsh metaphor (a4zs76, misuse of words). 


334 GLOSSARY. [§ 387. 


Chiasmus: a reversing of the order of words in corresponding pairs. 

Climax : a gradual increase of emphasis, or enlargement of meaning. 

Euphemism: the mild expression of a painful or repulsive idea. 

Euphony : the choice of words for their agreeable sound. 

Hyperbaton: violation of the usual order of words. 

Hyperbole: exaggeration for rhetorical effect. 

Irony: the use of words which naturally convey a sense contrary to. 
what is meant. 

Litotes ; the affirming of a thing by denying its contrary (§ 209. ¢c). 

Metaphor: the figurative use of words, indicating an object by some 
resemblance. 

Metonymy ; the use of the name of.one thing to indicate some kin- 
dred thing. 

Onomatopeia: a fitting of sound to sense 1n the use of words. 

Oxymoron ; the use of contradictory words in the same phrase. 

Paronomasia ; the use of words of like sound. 

Prosopopeia: personification. 

Synchysis ; the interlocked order (§ 344. 4). 

Synecdoche: the use of the name of a part for the whole or the 
reverse. 


387. III. TERMS OF PRoOsopy. 


Acatalectic : complete, as a verse or a series of feet (§ 359. a). 

Anaclasis ; breaking a rhythm by substituting different measures. 

Anacrusis ; the unaccented syllable or syllables preceding a verse. 

Antistrophe : a series of verses corresponding to one which has gone 
before (cf. strophe). 

Arsis; the unaccented part of a foot (§ 358). 

Basis ; a single foot preceding the regular movement of a verse. 

Cesura: the ending of a word within a metrical foot (§ 358. 4). 

Catalexis: loss of a final syllable (or syllables) making the series 
catalectic (incomplete, § 359. @). 

Contraction: the use of one long syllable for two short (§ 357). 

Correption : shortening of a long syllable for metrical reasons. 

Dieresis : the coincidence of the end of a foot with the end of a 
word (§ 358. ¢). 

Dialysis: the use of i (consonant) and v as vowels (sz/iia =silva). 

Diastole: the lengthening of a short syllable by emphasis (§ 359/)- 


§ 387-] GLOSSARY. aa 


Dimeter : consisting of two like measures. - 

Dipody ; consisting of two like feet. 

Distich : a system or series of two verses. 

Ecthlipsis ; the suppression of a final syllable in -m before a word 
beginning with a vowel (§ 359. @). 

Elision ; the cutting off of a final before a following initial vowel. 

Heptameter : consisting of seven feet. 

Hexameter : consisting of six measures. 

Hexapody: consisting of six feet. 

Hiatus; the meeting of two vowels without contraction or elision. 

Ictus : the metrical accent (§ 358. a). 

Irrational ; not conforming strictly to the unit of time (§ 356. note). 

Logaedic ; varying in rhythm, making the effect resemble prose. 

Monometer ; consisting of a single measure. 

Mora: the unit of time = one short syllable (§ 355. a). 

Pentameter ; consisting of five measures. ; 

Pentapody : consisting of five feet. 

Penthemimeris : consisting of five half-feet. 

Protraction : extension of a syllable beyond its normal length. 

Resolution: the use of two short syllables for one long (§ 357). 

Strophe: a series of verses making a recognized metrical whole 
(stanza), which may be indefinitely repeated. 

Syn@resis : i (vowel) and u becoming consonants before a vowel. 

Synalepha : the same as elision (§ 359. c. Rem.). 

Synapheia: elision between two verses (§ 359. ¢. Rem.), 

Synizesis ; the combining of two vowels in one syllable (§ 347. ¢). 

Syncope : loss of a short vowel. 

Systole : shortening of a syllable regularly long. 

Tetrameter : consisting of four measures. 

Tetrapody : consisting of four feet. 

Tetrastich ; a system of four verses. 

Thesis: the accented part of a foot (§ 358). 

Trimeter: consisting of three measures. 

Tripody : consisting of three feet. 

Tristich : a system of three verses. 


ae 


1 


Cesar : 
B. C., Bellum Civile. 
~ B. G., Bellum Galli- 
cum. 

B. Afr., Bellum Afri- 
canum. 
Catull., Catullus. 

Cic., Cicero : 

Ac. Acad, 
mica. 

Arch., pro Archia. 

Att., ad Atticum. 

Czxc., pro Caecina. 

Cel., pro M. Caelio. 

Cat., in Catilinam. 

Clu., pro Cluentio. 

C. M., Cato Major. 

Deiot., pro Deiotaro. 

De Or., de Oratore. 

Div., de Divinatione. 

Cecil., Divinatio in 
Caecilium. 

Fam., ad Familiares. 

Fat., de Fato. 

Fin., de Finibus. 

Flac., pro Flacco. 

Font., pro M. Fonteio. 

Ad Her. [ad Heren- 
nium). 

Inv., de Znventione. 

Lel., Zaelius. 

Legg., de Legibus. 

Agr., de Lege Agraria. 

Lig., pro Ligario. 

Manil., ro Lege Ma- 
nilia. 

Marce., pro Marcello. 


Acade- 


ae 


nie’ <4 . 
\ 
Pp AOE 
ks / 
XBBREYJAIONS 


eee ero 


Mil., Aro Milone. 
Mur., pro Murena. 
N.D., de Natura Deo- 
rum. 
Off., de Officiis. 
Or., Oraior. 
Par., Paradoxa. 
Part. Of, ae 
tione. 
Phil., Philippicae. 
Planc., pro Plancio. 
Pis., 22 Pisonem. 
Quinct., Aro Quinctio. 
Q. Fr., ad Q. Fratrem. 
Rabir., vo Rabirio. 
Rep., de Republica. 
Rosc. Am., pro Roscio 
Amerino. 2 
Rosc. Com., pro Roscio 
Comoedo. 
Sest., Avo Sestio. 
Sulla, pro Sulla. 
Top., Topica. 
Tusc., Zusculanae Dis- 
putationes. 
Univ., de Universo. 
Vatin., 7x Vatinium. 
Verr., ix Verrem. 
Hor., Horace : 
A. P., de Arte Poetica. 
Ep., Zpistulae. 
Epod., Zpodes. 
Od., Odes. 
Sat., Satires. 
Juv., Juvenal. 
Liv., Livy. 
Lucr., Lucretius. 


Parti- 








USED IN CITING dashes AND THEIR WORKS. 


| Mart., Martial. 
Nep., Nepos. 
Ov., Ovid : 
F., Fasti. 
M., Metamorphoses. 
ex P., Epistulae ex 
Ponto. 
Trist., 77é¢stia. 
Pers., Persius. 
Plaut., Plautus. 
Plin., Pliny, senior : 
H.N., Historia Natu- 
ralis. 
Plin., Pliny, junior : 
Ep., Zpistulae. 
Prop., Propertius. 
Q. C., Q. Curtius. 
Quint., Quintilian. 
Sall., Sallust : 
Cat., Catilina. 
Jug., Jugurtha. 
Sen., Seneca : 
Ep., Epistulae. 
Q. N., Quaestiones 
Naturales. 
Sil. It., Silius Italicus. 
Suet., Suetonius. 
Tac., Tacitus: 
Agr., Agricola. 
A., Ann., Annales. 
H., Aistoriae. 
Ter., Terenc®. 
Virg., Virgil : 
fEn., 4neid. 
E., Zclogae. 
G., Georgica. 





INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


—+ £9340 


Note. — The numerical references are to sections, with a few exceptions in which the 
page (p.) is referred to. The letters refer to subsections. The letter N. signifies Note; R., 
Remark. Abl. = ablative; acc. = accusative ; adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; apod. = 
apodosis ; app. = appositive ; comp. = comparison or compound; compar. = comparative ; 
constr. = construction ; conj. = conjugation or conjunction ; dat. = dative ; gen. = genitive ; 
gend. = gender; ind. disc. = indirect discourse; loc. = locative; prep. = preposition ; subj. 
= subject or subjunctive ; vb. = verb; w. = with. (Other abbreviations present no difficulty.) 


A, quantity in increment, 350, 351 ; 
quantity of a final, 348. 4. 

4 or 0, primary suffix, 160. ¢. I. 

4, characteristic of decl: I., 32 ; acc. 
of Gr. nouns in, 63. f; as nom. 
ending, decl. III., gend., 65. c. 

a, in decl. I., 32; stem-vowel of 
conj. I., 122, 166. @; preps. in -a, 
adv. use of, 261. d. 

a (ab, abs), use, 152. 4, 260. 4, 263 ; 
compounded with vbs., 170. a; 
with abl. of agent, 246 ; with place 
from which, 258; with names of 
towns, id. a. N. I; expressing po- 
sition, 260. 6; in comp., with dat., 
229; with abl., 243. 6; with abl. 
of gerund, 3oI. 

Ability, verbs of, constr., 271; in 
apod., 308. c. 

Abbreviations of preenomens, 80. @; 
other abbreviations, 384. 

ABLATIVE, Etymology; meaning, 
31. f; in -Abus, 36. ¢; of i-stems, 
decl. III., 55. ¢; rules of form, 
57; nouns having abl. in -i, 57. 
a, 6; of decl. IV., in -ubus, 70. a; 
abl. used as supine, 71. a; of 
adjs., decl. III., 87. a, 6; prepo- 
sitions followed by, 152. 3d. 

ABLATIVE, Syntax (§§ 242-255); 
meaning and classification, 242 ; 
Separation, 243; w. vbs. of free- 
dom, etc., id. @; w. compounds, 
id. 6; w. adjs. of freedom, etc., 
id. d; w. opus and idsus, id. «. 





Source and material, 244; w. 
participles, id. a; w. constare, etc., 
id. c; w. facere, id. @; w. nouns, 
id.¢. Cause, 245 ; w. dignus, etc., 
id. a; causa, gratia, id.c. Agent, 
246. Comparison, 247 ; epinidne, 
spé, etc., id. 4; w. alius, id. d@; w. 
advs., id.¢. Manner, 248; accom- 
paniment, id. 2; means, id. c; w. 
dono, etc., 225. 7; w. ator, fruor, 
etc., 249. Degree of difference, 
250; quo . . . ed, 106. ¢c, 250. R. 
Quality, 251; price, 252; charge 
or penalty, 220. 6. Specification, 
253- Place, 254; w. verbs and 
frétus, id. 4. Ablative absolute, 
255; adverbial use, id. c; replac- 
ing subord. clauses, id. d; supply- 
ing place of perf. act. part., 290. d. 
ADI. of time, 256 ; of time w. quam, 
262, N. 2; of place from which, 
258; names of towns, domus, ris, 
id. a; ex urbe Roma, id. 4. N. 3; 
Locative abl., id. e, £; way by 
which, id. ¢; with transitive com- 
pounds, 239. 4. N. 1; time within 
which, 259. c; distance of time, 
id. d@. Abl. with prepositions, 152. 
6, c, 260-63; with ex for part. 
gen., 216. ¢; with pro (2 defence 
of), 236. R.; with palam, etc., 261. 
6; abl. of gerund, 301. 


Abounding, words of, w. abl., 248. 


c. 23 W.gen., 223. 


Absence, vbs. of, w. abl., 243. a. 


338 


Absolute use of vb., 175. 4. N. 2, 237. 
N.; absolute case, see abl. abso- 
lute. 


_ Abstract nouns, gend., 29. 4, in pl., 


» 





a 


~~ 
~ 


75. ¢3 endings, 163. 4, ¢, f/f; w. 
adj., 187. c; abstract quality de- 
noted by neut. adj., 189. a. 

absum, constr., 231. a. 

-Abus, in dat. and abl. pl., decl. L, 
36. e. 

ac, see atque; 4c si, see acsi. 

Acatalectic verse, 359. a. 

accédit ut, 332. 

Accent, rules of, 19; in decl. II., 4o. 
6; in comps. of facid, 142. 4; 
musical, 358. 

acceptum, 292. N. 2. 

accidit, synopsis, 145 ; constr., 332. a. 

accing6, constr., 225. d. 

accommodatus, w. dat. of gerund, 
etc., 299. foot-n. 

Accompaniment, abl. of, 248. a. 


‘Accomplishment, vbs. of, w. sub- 


junc., 332. 
CCUSATIVE, Use, 31. @; in -m and 
“8, 33-¢; in -im, decl. III., 56. a, 
6; in-is (pl.), 58 ; in -a, 63.75; acc. 
of decl. [V.; used as supine, 71. a; 
neut. acc. used as adv., 148. d. 
ACCUSATIVE, Syntax, 237-40; w. 
_ verbs of remembering, 219 and a, 
6; and gen. w. vbs. of reminding, 
id. ¢ ; w. impersonals, 221. 4, 237. 
_ @; w. dat. 225; w. compounds of 
ad, ante, ob, 228. a; verbs varying 


~ between acc. of end of motion and 


dat., 225. 4; w.ad, for dat. 234.4; 
after propior, etc., id. e; after 
nouns, 237. /; direct object, 237 ; 
w. iuvo, etc., 227. a; acc. or dat. 
w. vbs., 227.4, ¢; acc. w. verbs of 
feeling and taste, 237. 6, c; with 
comps. of circum and trans, id. d; 
cognate acc., 238; two accusa- 
tives, 239 ; acc. w. pass. of verbs 
of asking, etc., 239. ¢. R.; adverbial 
use of, 240. a, 4; synecdochical 
acc., id. c; in exclamations, id. d; 
duration and extent, id. ¢, 256, 
257; end of motion, 258; names 
of towns, domus, riis, id. 4; Ro- 
mam ad urbem, id. N. 3; acc. w. 
ante diem, 259. ¢; subject of 





INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


inh; 073. 2, 240. fo-272; 330 50w. 
prepositions, 152. @, c; w. prep. 
to denote penalty, 220. 4; w. ad 
w. réfert, etc., 222. 6; w. pridié, 
propius, etc., 261. @; acc. of gerund, 
300; of anticipation, 334. ¢; sub- 
ject in indirect discourse, 336. 
and a. 

Accusing and acquitting, vbs. of, 
constr., 220. 

acer, decl., 84. @; comp., 89. a. 

-aceus, adj., ending, 164. g. 

aciés, decl., 74. d. 

acquiésco, with abl., 254. 2. 

acsi, with subjunc., 312. 

Actions, names of, 163; nouns of, 
w. gen., 217. 

Active voice, 108. a, 111 ; change to 
pass., 177. a. 

Acts, nouns denoting, 163. ¢. 

acus, gender, 69. a. 

-acus (-Acus), adj. ending, 164. ¢. 

ad, use, 152. @; In comp., 170. 23 
in comp., w. dat., 228, 229; in 
comp., w. acc., 228. a@; w. acc. w. 
adjs., 234. 6; end of motion, 258, 
cf. 225. 6; w. names of towns, 
258. 6. N. 2; w. names of coun- 
tries, 258. 2; meaning ear, 258. 
c. N. I; in expressions of time, 
259. 6; following its noun, 263. N. ; 
w. gerund, 300. 

adamas, decl., 63. e. 

additur, constr., 332. 

aded (verb), constr., 228. a. 

adeo ut, 319. R. 

-adés, patronymic ending, 164. 4. 

adim6, constr., 229. 

Adjective phrase, 179. 

Adjective pronouns, see Pronouns. 

ADJECTIVES, Etymology ; definition, 
introd. 4 ; formed like nouns, p. 34. 
Declension, 81-87 ; decl. I. and IL., 
81-83 ; decl. III., 84-87 ; decl. IIL, 
three terminations, 84. a; one ter- 
mination, 85. Comparison, 89-91 ; 
decl. of comparative, 86; advs. 
derived from adjs., 148; numeral 
adjs., 94,95; derivative adjs., 164. 

ADJECTIVES, Syztax and use; as 
advs., 88. d (cf. 92), 148. d, 191; 
as nouns, 88. a, 188, 189 ; masc. 
adjs., 88. 5; adjs. of com. gend., 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


88. 4; nouns used as adjs., 88. c, 
188.d; advs. used as adjs., 188. ¢ ; 
participles used as adjs., 291. 
Agreement of adjs., 186, 187; at- 
tribute and predicate, 187. a, 6; 
use of neut. adjs. 189; two com- 
paratives with quam, 192. Adjs. 
w. adverbial force, 191 ; adj. pro- 
nouns, 195-203. Gen. of adjs. of 
decl. III. instead of nom., 214. d. 
rR. Adjs. w. gen., 218; w. dat., 
DAs, We ACC 2377 5 We INt., 27 3- 
d; w.supine in-a, 303. Position 
of adjs., 344. a, & Adjective 
phrase, 179. 

adiuvo, w. acc., 227. a. 

admodum, use, 93. d. 

admoneo, constr., 219. c. 

Admonishing, vbs. of, constr., 330. 
2rigal: 

adspergo, constr., 225. d. 

adilor, constr., 227. 4. 

Adverbial acc., 240 a, 4, cf. 238. a. 

Adverbial conjunctions, 25. 4. N. 

Adverbial phrases, 179. 

ADVERBS, defined, introd. 8 ; formed 
from adjs., 88. d@., 92, 148; com- 
parison of advs., 92; numeral 
advs., 96; correlative advs. used 
as conjs., 107. Classification 
of advs., 149. Advs. used as 
adjs., 188.-¢; adjs. w. adver- 
bial force, 191; adverbial acc., 
240. a; adverbial abl. abs., 255. 
c. Special uses, 150, 151. SyYN- 
TAX, 207 ; adv. w. nouns, 207. d; 
part. gen. w. advs., 216, a. 4; dat. 
w. advs., 234. @; comp. of adv. 
followed by quam, 247. ¢; adv. 
as protasis, 3h0. a. 

Adversative conjunctions, 154. a. 2. 

adversus, w. acc., 152. a3 as adv., 
261. d. 

ae, diphthong, 1; sound of, 16, 
Tene. 

aedés, sing. and pl., 79. a. 

aeger, decl., 82, 

aemulor, constr., 227. 0. 

Aenéadés, decl., 37. 

Aenéas, decl., 37. 

aequalis, decl., 57. @; constr. w. 
gen., 234. d. 

aequo (abl.), w. comp., 247. 4. 





339 


aequor, decl., 49. 

aér, decl., 63. 7; use of pl., 75. 2. 

aes, use of pl., 75. 4. 

aetas, decl., 54. 

aethér, decl., 63. f 

affinis, decl., 57. 4; constr. w. gen., 
234. d. 

Affirmative, expressed by two nega- 
tives, 150; nonne, expecting affirm. 
answer, 210. c; ways of saying 
yes, 212. and a. 

Agency, nouns of, 162; rel. clause 
equivalent to, 201. 6. 

Agent, dat. of, w. gerundives, 232 ; 
w. perf. parts., id. a ; abl. of, 246 ; 
agent regarded as means, id. 4; 
animal as agent, id. N. 

ager, decl., 38. 

aggredior, constr., 228. a. 

Agnomen, 80. b. 

ago, forms of, omitted, 206. c. 

Agreeing, verbs of, with gerundive, 
294. d (cf. 331. @). 

Agreement, def., introd. 181 ; forms 
of, 182 ; of nouns, 183 ; in appos., 
184; in predicate, 185; of adjs., 
186 ; of demonstrative pronouns, 
195 ; of possessive pronouns, 197 ; 
of relatives, 198, 199; of verbs, 
204, 205. 

-ai for -ae, decl. I., 36. a; 347. a. 2. 

-dius in Prosody, 347. @, note I. 

-al and -ar, neuters in (decl. III.), 
53> & 57-4. 

-al, noun-ending, 164. 7. 7. 

alacer, decl., 84. a ; comp., 91. d. 

-ale, noun-ending, 164. z. 7. 

aliénus, for possessive gen. of alius, 
83. 4, 190, 214. a. 

aliqui (-quis), decl., 105. 2; deriva- 
tion and use, id. N.; meaning, 
202. a, b. 

aliquot, indeclinable, use, 106. a. 

-alis, -aris, adj. endings, 164. d. 

alius decl., 83; gen., id. 4, cf. 214. 
a; compounds, 83. 4; alius with 
abl., ac, nisi, quam, 247. d. 

alius .. . alius, alter. . . alter, 203. 

Alphabet, p. 4; vowels and diph- 
thongs, I; consonants, 2; table 
of vowels and consonants, 2, 4; 
early forms of letters, 6/ 

alter, decl., 83; gen. and comps., 


340 


id. 4; use, 203; reciprocal use, 
99. d, 203. 
alter... alter, 203. 
altera est rés ut, 332. - 
alteruter, decl., 83. 4; use, 203. a. 
Although, how expressed, 313, 320. ¢. 


alvos (alvus), gend., 39. a. 

am-, see amb-. 

amb- (am-, an-), inseparable prefix, 
170. &. 


ambagés, decl., 59. 

-ambd, decl., 94. d. 

éns, decl., 87. a. 

lius, without quam, 247. c. 

im, acc., 56. a. 

ee amb-. 

e, annon, in double questions, 









211. 
Anaphora, 344. f. 
anceps, decl., 87. a. 
Anchisés, decl., 37. 
Andromaché, decl., 37. 
~aneus, adj. ending, 164. g. 
animal, decl., 52. 

Animals, gend. of names of, 29. 4, 
30. 6; regarded as_ means, 246. 6. 
N 
p 


to Pt tea. 1. 


animi (loc.), w. adjs., 218. ¢c. R.; w. 
verbs, 223. ¢. . 

annalis, decl., 57. a. 

Answers, forms of, 212. 

ant-, ent-, stem endings, 63. e. 


3 e, 152, @ 3; compounded w. vbs., 
S 170. @; in compounds, w. dat., 
= 228 ; w.acc., id. @; adverbial use 


of, 261. 2; followed by quam, 262. 
ante diem, 259. ¢. : 

Antecedent, its use with relative, 
198, 200 ; undefined, constr., 320 ; 
see indefinite antecedent. 

antecéd6, constr., 228. a. 

anteed, constr., 228. a. 

antegredior, constr., 228. a. 


. Antepenult, 19. def. 
| antequam, 327; in ind. disc., 336. 
B. a. N. 2. ; 


Anticipation, acc. of, 334. ¢; be- 
comes nom., id. R. 

Antithesis, 344 

anus, gend., 69. a.. 

-anus, adjs. in, 164. c. 

Aorist (-hist. perf.), 279. 

apage, 144. /. 





| 
| 


| 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


a parte, 260. 6. 

apertus, comp. of, 89. e. 

apis, decl., 59. 

Apodosis, defined, 304 ; introduced 
by correl., id. 6; may be subord., 
id. ¢; forms of, 305, 306 ff.; po- 
tential subj., 311. @ and R.; subj. 
of modesty, id. 4; verbs of neces- 
sity, etc., id. c ; complex apod., id. 
ad; apodosis omitted, 312 ; apod. 

- in ind. disc., 337. 

Appointing, verbs of, constr., 239. a. 

Apposition, see apfposztive. 

Appositive, defined, 184; agree- 
ment of, 183, 184. 6; w. locative, 
id. ¢; gen. as appositive to pos- 
sessive, id. d, 197 e; gen. used for 
app., 214. f, so dat., 231, 4; rel. 
clause equivalent to appositive, 
201. 6; acc. as app. to a clause, 
240. ¢ ; appositive instead of voc., 
241. @; app. in connection with 
inf., 270. N. 2. 

aptus ad, 234. 4; aptus, w. dat. of 
gerund, etc., 299, foot-n.; aptus 
qui, 320. 7 

apud, 152. a; in quoting, 258. c¢. 2. 
N. 2. 

aqualis, decl., 57. a. 3 

-ar, nom. ending, decl. III., 51. ¢ 
53: 6 57-@; gend., 65. ¢. 

-ar, -dris, nouns in, 57.2. 

arbor (-ds), decl., 48. N. 

arced, constr., 225. @. N. 2. 

arctus, gend., 39. a. 

arcus, gend., 69. a. 

arded, w. abl., 245. a. 2. 

-aria, suffix, 164. z. 2. 

-dris, adj. ending, 164. d. 

-frium, noun ending, 164. 8.3. 

-Arius, adj. ending, 164. 2; noun, 
id. 4, 1. 

Arrangement of words, 343-346. 

Arsis and thesis, 358. 

Article, none in Latin, introd. 2. N. 

artus, decl., 70. d. 

-As, in acc. pl. of Gr. nouns, 63. f 

-As, old gen. ending 36. 6; Gr. nom. 
ending, 63. ¢; patronymic, 164. 4. 
gend. of nouns in, 65. 4; adjs. in 
-As, 164. ¢c. 

-As, value of, 377; gen. of, 252. 4. 

Asking, vbs. of, w. two acc., 239. ¢; 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


w. abl., 239. ¢. N. 1; 
clause, 331. 

Aspirates, 2. 2, 3. 

Assertions, direct, in Indic., 112. a. 

Assimilation of consonants, II. ¢. 

assis, gen. of value, 252. 4. 

ast, 156. 4. 

-aster, as noun ending, 164. z. 12. 

Asyndeton, 208. 6, 346. c. 

At, meaning near, 258. ¢. N. I. 

at, use, 156. 4; at enim, id.; at véro, 
208. ee 

at-, patrial stem ending, 54. 3; decl., 
593 87. 4 

ater, decl., $2. c. 

Athos, decl., 43. 

Atlas, decl., 63. e, 64. 

atque (Ac), use, 156. @; after alius, 
247 Nas 

atqui, use, 156. 6. 

atrox, decl., 85. a. 

Attraction of case of relative, 199. 
a. 

Attraction, subjunctive of, 340, 342. 

Attributive adjective defined, 186. a; 
number, 186. d; takes gender of 
nearest noun, 187. a. 

-atus, adj. ending, 164. 7 

audacter, comp., 92. 

aula, decl., 37. 

ausus as pres. part., 290. 0. 

aut, use, 156. ¢; 212. R. 

autem, use, 156.4, 2; 345. 4. 

Author w. apud, 258. c. N. 2. 

avis, decl., 57. 0. 

-Ax, verbal adj. soning, 164. 2; adjs. 
in, with gen., 218. 4 


w. subjunc. 


baccar, decl., 57. a. 

Bargaining, verbs of, constr. ; ger- 
undive, 294. d; clause, 331. d. 

basis, decl., 64. 

Beginning, verbs of, constr., 271. 

Believing, verbs of, with dat., 227. 

belli, locative use of, 258. d. 

bellum, decl., 38. 

bellus, comp., gI. d. 2. 

Belonging, adjs. of, w. gen., 234. d. 

bene, comparison, 92; compounds 
of, constr., 227. ¢. 

Benefiting, verbs of, constr., 227. 

-ber, names of months in, decl., 84. 
a. 





341 


bi-color, decl., 87. d, f 

bi-corpor, 85. 4. N. 

-bilis, verbal adj. ending in, 164. m. 

bipennis, decl., 87. 4. 

Birds, gend. of names of, 29. 2. 

Birth or origin, nouns of, derivation, 
164. 4; participles of, with abl., 
224. a. 

bonus, comparison, 90; w. dat. of 
gerund, etc., 299. foot-n. 

bos, decl., 60. 4, 61. 

bri-, stems ending in, 51. 4; adjs. in, 
84. a. 

-brum, suffix, 163. d. 

-bulum, suffix, 163. d. 

-bundus, verbals in, 164. 4; w. acc., 


237.f. 
biris, decl., 56. a. 
Buying, verbs of, constr., 252. @ 


C for g, in early use and as abbrevia- 
tion, 6; for qu, 7; gend. of 
nouns in -c, 65. ¢; quantity of 
final syllables ending in, 348. ro. 

caedés, decl., 59. 

caelés, decl., 87. 0. 

Caere, decl., 57. a. 

caesius, comp., QI. @. 

Ceesura, 358. 4; masc. and fem., 362. 
6. ; bucolic czesura, id. 

Calendar, Roman, 376. 

Calends, 376. a. 

campester, decl., 84. a. 

canalis, decl., 57. 4. 

canis, decl. and stem, 47. ¢, 51. a. 

Capacity, measures of, 383. 

capitis, gen., with verbs of accusing, 
220. a. 

caput, decl., 46. 

Capys, decl., 63. g, 64. 

Cardinal numbers, 94, replaced by 
distributives, 95. 6, @; inflection 
of id. a-e ; with ex, 216. c. 

caré, comp., 92. 

caro, decl., 61. 

carus, compared, 89. 

Case constructions, N., p. 161. 

Case-endings, final vowels in, 33. g; 
table, 34. 

Cases, defined, 31 ; position of modi- 
fying case, 344. @. 2; agreement 
in, 183; case of rel. ’ pron. v9: TOSS 
199. @; same case after as before 


342 


certain conj.,208.@. Construction 
of Cases, 213-263 ; Genitive, 213- 
223; Dative, 224-236; Accusa- 
tive, 237-240; Vocative, 241; 
Ablative, 242-255; time and 
place, 256-259 ; cases with preps., 
260. 4 


Catalectic verse, 359. a. 

causa, W. gen., 223. ¢, 245. ¢; w. gen. 
of gerund, 318. 

Causal clauses, w. indic. or subj., 
quod, quia (cf. N. 3), quoniam, 321 ; 
w. quando, id. N. 3; w. qui, 320. ¢; 
with cum, id. /; nOdn quia, non 
quod, etc., in the denial of a rea- 
son, 321. R. ; causal clause replaced 
by part., 292; by abl. abs., 255. 
Ge 2s 


Causal conjunction, 154. @. 3; par- 
ticles, 321. 

Cause, abl. of, 245. 

Cause, adverb of, 149. c. 

Caution and effort, vbs. of, constr., 
Bae. 

cave, in prohibitions, 269. a@; né 
omitted after, 331. f R. 

caveo, constr., 331. 

-ce, enclitic, 100, IOI. N. 

Ceasing, vbs. of; w. complem. inf., 
271. 

céd6, constr., 226..N. 2. 

celeber, decl., 84. a. 

celer, forms, 84. a, c. 

célo, w. acc., 239. d. 

Celtibér, decl., 41. @. 

cénsed, constr., 331 and d. 

certé, certd, use, 151. c; in answers, 
212). 

cété, Greek pl., 39. d. 

cetera, adverbial use, 240. 4; -us, 
use, 193 ; -1, use, 203. a. 

ceu, use, 312. 

-ceus, ad., ending, 164. g. 

Characteristic, clause of, 320. 

Characteristic, expr. by participle, 
292. 

Characteristic vowel, 32, 351. 

Charge and penalty, gen. of, 220. 

chelys, decl., 63. g, 64. 

Chiasmus, 344. fand N. 

Choosing, vbs. of, w. 2 acc., 239. a. 

ci and ti, interchange of, 12. a. 

-cinium, noun ending, 163. / 





INDEX .OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


-cid, diminutive ending, 164. a. R. 

cip-, stems in, decl. III., 45. 

circa, circum, circiter, use, 152. a; 
as advs., 261. d. 

circa, after a noun, 293. N.; w. ger- 
und, 300. 

circum, compounds w. vbs., 170. a; 
dat. w. such comps., 228; acc., 
237. d. 

circumdo, constr., 225. d. 

circumfund6, constr., 225. d. 

Circumstances of act, 255 and d@. 5; 
participle implying, 292. 

cis, citerior, QI. a. 

Cities, gend. of names of, 29. 2 
and 6. 

citra, after its noun, 263. N. 

civis, -és, decl., 51. a. 

cladés, decl., 59. 

clam, constr., 261. ¢. 

Classes, names of, gend. of, 28 a; 
used in plu., 76. 2. 

Clauses, defined, introd. 17; kinds 
of, 180 ; replaced by abl. abs., 255. 
@; used as nouns with gen., 214. 
ad; dependent, syntax of, 316-342 
incl. ; conditional, 316 ; final, 317, 
318 ; consecutive, 319, 320; causal, 
321; temporal, 322-328 ; substan- 
tive, 329-339 incl.; _ infinitive 
clauses, 330; substantive clauses 
of purpose, 331; of result, 332 ; 
indic. with quod, 333; indirect 
questions, 334 ; indirect discourse, 
335-342- 

clavis, decl., 57. 4. 

clienta, 85. c. 

coepl, 143. @. 

Cognate acc., 237. ¢. N., 238, 240. a. 

Cognomen, 8o. a. 

Collective noun with pl. verb, 205. ¢. 

colus, gend., 69. a. 

com- (con-), compounded w. vbs., 
170. a; such take dat., 228. 

Combinations of words, 13. 

cométés, decl., 37. 

comitium, comitia, 79. a. 

comitor, constr., 227. 6. 

Command, see Imperative ; in hor- 
tatory subj., 266. 

Commanding, vbs. of, w. dat., 227 ; 
w. inf., 330. 2 and 4. 2; w. subj., 


331. @ (cf. 332. 4). - 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


Command, expressed by imv., 269; 
for condition, 310. 4; in indir. 
disc., 339 ; in informal ind. disc., 
341. a. 

commiseror, w. acc., 221. 0. 

committé ut, 332 and e. 

Common gender, 30; adjs. of, 88. 4. 

Common syllables, 18. ¢, 347. d. 

commonefacio, -fi6, constr., 219. ¢. 

commoned, constr., 219. c. 

comminis, w. gen., 218. 

commiutare, constr., 252. ¢. 

Comparative conjunctions, 154. 4. 2, 
155; in conditions, 312. 

Comparative suffix, of advs., 148. d. 

Comparatives, decl., 86; stem, id. 
a; neut. sing. of comp. adj. used 

*as adv., 92; meaning of, 93. 2; 
two comparatives, 192}; comp. 
and positive w. quam, id.; abl. w. 
comp., 247 ; quam w. comp., id. a ; 
compar. w. quam (ut), quam qui, 
320.065) 332.0. 

Comparison, conjunctions of, 208. a. 

Comparison of adjs., 89; irregular, 
90; defective, 91; w. magis and 
maximé, 89. d; of advs., 92 ; prep- 
ositions implying, with quam, 262. 

Comparison, particles of, tamquam, 
quasi, etc., constr., 312. 

Complementary infinitive, 271 ; has 
no subject, id. N.; pred. noun or 
adj. after, id. c. N.; inf. partly sub- 
oie partly complementary, 270. 


cmpleied action, tenses of, 115; 
in the pass., 147. 4.; use of, 279. 

compled, constr., 248. c. R., 223. 

Complex conditional sentences, 311. 
d. 

Complex sentence, 180. 6. 

complirés, compliria, 86. 0. 

compos, decl., 87. 4, d. 

Composition, all word-formation a 
process of, p. 104. 

Compound sentence, defined, 180. 

Compound stems, imaginary, 164. 7. 

Compound suffixes, 160. 4, 161. 

Compound — 170; comps. of 
facid, 142. a, db. 

Compound words, defined, 168 ; how 
formed, 168-170. 

Compounds of prep., w. dat., 228 ; 





343 
of ab, dé, ex, 229; w. acc., 237. d, 
239. 6; quantity of, 354. ¢. 

con-, see com-. 

Conative present, 276. 4 ; imperfect, 
277 iG: 

concéd6, constr., 331 and c. 

Concession, hortatory subj. of, 266 
and ¢ (cf. 313. a, z); particles of, 
313 ; quamvis, ut, né, 313. a; licet, 
id. 6; etsi, etc., id.c; cum, id. d; 
quam-quam, id. ¢, g; quamvis, w 
indic., id. g; vbs. of, w. ut, 331. 
c; abl. abs. for concess. clause, 
255. @. 3; concession implied in 
part., 292 ; qui concessive, 320. ¢. 

Concessive clauses, see Concession. 

Concessive conjunctions, 154. 4 3; 
foll. by adversative, 156. 4. N.; 
particles, use of, 313. 

Conclusion, see Apodosis. 

Concords, the four, 182. 

concors, decl., 85. 4, 87. a. 

Condemning, vbs. of, constr., 220. 

Conditional clauses, defined, 180. d. 

Conditional conjunctions, 154. 4. I. 

Conditional sentences, defined, 180. 
d; protasis and apodosis, 304 ; 
classification, 305; Pres. and Past, 
nothing implied, 306 ; Future con- 
ditions, 307 ; fut. more vivid, id. 
a,c; fut. less vivid, id. 4, c; perf. 
indic. in fut. cond., id. e ; Contrary 
to fact, 308 ; indic. in cont. to fact 
condition, id. 4, cf. ¢; General 
condition, 309; condition dis- 
guised, 310; as part., etc., id. a; 
as exhortation or command, id. ; 
protasis omitted, 311; Potential 
Subjunc., id. 2; Subjunc. of Mod- 
esty, id. 6; vbs. of necessity, etc., 

_ id. ¢; complex conditions, id. d; 
Particles of Comparison (conclu- 
sion omitted), 312; Concessive 
clauses, 313; Proviso, 314; use 
of si and its comps., 315; condi- 
tional relative clauses, 316; tem- 
poral, 322, 327. 4; conditional 
sentences in ind. disc., 337: 

Conditional Particles, 312. 

confidd, constr., 254. 3. 

Conjugation, defined, 26. Conjuga- 
tion of verbs, 122-147 ; how dis- 
tinguished, 122, a; regular forms 


344 


of, 122. c; mixed forms, id. d; par- 
allel forms, 134; stem-vowels of 
conjugations, 122-125 ; paradigms 
of the four regular conjugations, 
pp. 72-84. 

Conjunctions, defined, introd. 10; 
classes of, 154; use of, 156; cor- 
relative use, id. # ; conjs. repeated, 
id. SyNnTax of conjs., 208; 
omitted, id. 4; use together, id. e. 

Conitnctivus modestiae, 311. b. 

conor, w. inf., 331. ¢ 1; conor si, 
id. N. 

Consecutive clauses, defined, 180. ¢ ; 
of charact. and result, 319, 320. 

Consecutive conjunctions, 154. 4. 

consequor ut, 332. 

cOnsistere, w. abl., 244. c, 254. d. 

Consonants, classification, 2 ; chang- 
es, II; omission, id. 4; insertion, 
id. c, 124. a. N.; dissimilation, 11. 
d; assimilation, id. ¢; pronunci- 
ation, 16, 17. 

Consonant stems of nouns, decl. III., 
44-50; stems apparently ending 
in two consonants, 54. I; cons. 
stems of adjs., 85; case-forms, 
87 ; of verbs, 166. a. 3. 

Consonant suffixes (primary), 160. 
G.'2. 

consors, decl., 87. a. 

constare, w. abl., 244. c. 

constituo, constr., 331. d. 

Constriictid ad sensum. See Synesis. 

Constructions of cases, 213-263 (see 
under abl., etc.). 

cOnsuévi, use, 279. ¢. 

consul, decl., 49. 

consularis, decl., 57. a. 

consuld, w. dat. or acc., 227. ¢. 

Contention, words of, constr., 229. 
c, 248. 6. 

contentus, w. abl., 254. 4; w. perf. 
inf., 288. ¢. 

continéri, w. abl., 244. c. 

contingit ut, 332. 

Continued action, tenses of, ‘II 5. 

Continuing, vbs. of, w. compl. inf., 
271. 

contra, use, 152. a, 188. ¢. 2; as adv., 
261 ; position, 263. N. 

Contracted forms, vin, scin, 13. ¢; 
gen. in -1, dat. and abl. in -is, 4o. 4. 





INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


Contracting, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 
294. d. 

Contraction of vowels, Io. 6; quan- 
tity, 18. ¢; in prosody, 347. c; 
of syllables, 355. d. 

Contrary to fact, conditions, 308 ; in 
ind. disc., 337. 6. 

convenio, w. acc., 228. a. 

Co-ordinate conjunctions, 154. @; 
co-ord. clauses, 180. @; co-ord. 
words without conj., 208. 4; w. 
conj., id. 

Copula, 172. N., 176. a; position of, 


344: J 

Copulative conjunctions, 154. @. 1; 
constr. after, 208 ; use of, 208. 4. 

Copulative verbs, 172. N., 176. a. 

corpus, decl., 49. * 

Correlatives, 106, 107 ; rendered by 
as, 106. 6; by the... theta. 3 
advs. of place, 149. a; conjs., 156. 
A, 208. d; correlative in main 
clause, w. final clause, 317. a. 

Countries, names of, gend., 29. 2 
and 4; as end of motion, and 
place from which, 258. 

Crasis, 347. ¢. 

cratér, decl., 63. f 

crédibili, w. comparative, 247. d. 

crédo, position of, 345. c. 

Crime or charge, gen. of, 220. 

-crum, noun-ending, 163. d. 

cucumis, decl., 56. a. 

cilids, ciiius, 105. / 

ciiiusmodi, 215. a. 

-culum, noun suffix, 163. d. 

-culus, dim. ending, 164. a. 

cum, quom (conj.), form, 104. /; 
meaning, 156.¢; cum... tum, 
107, 156. 4, 208. @; with clause 
for part., 290. c, d, 326. 6; causal, 
321 ; concesS:, 313. @; causal or 
concess., 326 ; temporal, 322, 325; 
sequence, 287. ¢. N.; in ind. disc., 
330. B. a. N. 2. 

cum (prep.), 152. 4; joined as en- 
clitic with pronouns, 99. ¢, 104. ¢, 
e; in comp., see com; with abl. 
of manner, 248; with abl. of 
accompaniment, 248. a; with 
words of contention, 248. 4; with 
words of exchange, 252. ¢. N.; W. 
abl. of gerund, 301. 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


-cumque, added to relatives, 105. @ 
and N.; temporal particles with, 


22% 

-cundus, verbal adj. ending, 164. 2. 

cup-, stem-ending, 45. 

cupid, constr., 331. 6 and N. 

card, constr., 331; cura (imv.), use, 
269. g- 

-cus, nouns in, decl. IV., 70. d; -cus, 
suffix, 164. 2. 9. 

Customary action, 277, 309. 4. 


Dactyl, 356. 4. 

Dactylic verse, 360; hexameter, 
363; elegiac stanza, 363. 

damnas, indecl. adj., 87. f. 

Daphné, decl., 37. 

Daphnis, decl., 63. z, 64. 

daps, increment of, 350. 


Daring, vbs. of§ w. compl. inf., 


271. 

Dates, how expressed, 259. e, 376. 

DATIVE, defined, 31. ¢ ; in -ai, decl. 
I., 36. @; in -abus, decl. I., 36. ¢; 
in -is for -iis, decl. II., 40. 4; in 
-ubus, decl. IV., 70. @; in i (of 
tinus, etc.), 83. 

DATIVE, Syntax, 224-236. Indirect 
object, 224; uses of, id; with 
transitives, 225; use of dond, etc., 
id. @; in pass., 225. ¢; with in- 
transitives, 226; with phrases, id. 
a; like gen., id. 6; with intran- 
sitives, verbs meaning favor, etc., 
227; verbs having dat. or acc., 
227.¢; with verbal nouns, id. d; 
with comps. of satis, etc., id. ¢; 
with comps. of prep. ad, ante, 
etc., 228 ; with comps. of ab, dé, 
ex, 229; poetic use, 229. c; with 
passive used impersonally, 230. 
Of Possession, 231 ; with comps. 
of esse, id. 2; with ndmen est, id. 
5. Of Agency, 232. Of Service, 
233; with adjs. or adverbs, 234; 
with adjs. of fitness, etc., 234. a. 
Of Reference, 235; ethical dat., 
236. With words of contention 
(poetic), 248. 4. Of End of Motion, 
258. N. 1; w. infin., 272. a; dat. 
of gerund, 299. 

Dativus commodi aut incommodi, 


235. N. 





345 


dé, use, 152. 4; in comp. w. vbs., 
170. @; in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 
229; in comp. w. vbs., w. abl., 
243. 6; w. abl. instead of part. 
gen., 216. c ; w. vbs. of reminding, 
219. ¢c. N.; w. abl. to denote the 
crime, 220. ¢; w. place from which, 
258; position of dé, 263. N.; dé 
w. abl. of gerund, 3o1. 

dea, decl., 36. ¢. 

débed, in apod., 308. ¢. 

débui, w. pres. inf., 288. a. 

decet, w. acc., 237. ¢; in apodosis, 
308. ¢. 

Declarative sentence, 171. a; how 
expressed in ind. disc., 336. 

Declension defined, 26; character- 
istics of, 32; general rules for, 
33; terminations, 34. Of Nouns, 
I., 35-37 ; II., 38-43 ; III., 44-67 ; 
IV., 68-71; V., 72-74; decl. V. 
comp. with I., 74. 6. Of Adjs., 
decl. I.-II., 81-83; decl. III., 84- 
85; of comparatives, 86; of par- 
ticiples, 85. a, d. 

Decreeing, verbs of, 331. d. 

dédi, quantity of penult, 351. 4. 

Defective nouns, 75 ; in number, 76 ; 
of deci: IV:; 71. 6; of decl. Vs 
yf oat fs 

Defective adjectives, 87. f 

Defective comparison, 9F. 

Defective verbs, 143, 144. 

Defective verb-forms, 110, 143, 144. 

défend6, constr., 229. c. 

déficid, constr., 227. a. 

Definite perfect, I15. ¢. 1, 279; se- 
quence of, 287. a. 

Definitions elementary, introd. 18. 

Definitions of Syntax, 171-181 ; of 
figures in grammar, rhetoric, and 
prosody, 387. 

défit, 142. c. 

dégener, 85. 4. N., 87. a. 

Degree, adverbs of, 149. c. 

Degrees of Comparison, 89. 

Degree of difference, abl. of, 250; 
distance expressed by, 257. 0. 

deinde, dénique, in enumerations, 
151. @. 

délectat, constr., 237. ¢. 

délecto, w. acc., 227. a. 

délector, w. abl., 254. 0. 


346 


Deliberative subjunctive, 268; in 
indir. questions, 334. 4; in indir. 
disc., 338. a. 

Delivering, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 
294. d. 

Délos, decl., 43. 

delphin, decl., 63. a. 

Demanding, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 
294. a. 

Demonstrative adverbs, as correla- 
tives, 107; equivalent to de- 
monstr. pron. w. prep., 207. @. 
Position, 344. 4. 

Demonstrative pronouns, 100-102; 
decl.,. 10% ; .of 2d: 'pers., id: c. 
Syntax, 195; in relative clause, 
201. é.N. Position, 344. 4. 

dénarius, value of, 377. 

Denominative verbs, 165, 166. 

Dependent clauses, subj. used in, 
265. 6. 

Deponent verbs ‘defined, Ir. 0; 
paradigms, 135; participles, id. a; 
fut. inf., id. ¢; used reflexively, 
135. ¢; in passive sense, id. /; 
semi-deponents, 136. 

’ Depriving, constr. with verbs of, 
243. a. 

Derivation of Words, 157-170. 

Derivative forms of nouns, 162, 
163; of adjs., 164; of verbs, 166, 
167. 

Derivative verbs, defined, 165. 

Derivatives, quantity of, 354. 

-dés, nouns in, 164. 0. 

Description, imperf. used in, 115. 
6; description implied in part., 
292. 

Descriptive abl., see abl. of quality. 

déses, decl., 87. 0. 

Desiderative verbs (in -urid), 167. ¢. 

Desire, adjs. of, w. gen., 218. a. 

déspéro, constr., 227. 0. 

déterior, comp. of, 91. d. 

Determinative compounds, 168. 6. 

Determining, vbs. of, constr., 331. d. 

deus, decl., 40. 7. 

dexter, comp. go. 

di- see dis-. 

Dieresis, 358. ¢. 

Diastolé, 359. f- 

dic, imperative, 128. c. 

dico, forms of, omitted, 206. c. 





INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


dictd, w. comp., 247. 3. 

-dicus, adjs. in, comparison of, 89. c. 

Dido, decl., 63. 2, 64. 

diem dicere, w. dat. of gerund, etc., 
299. a. 

diés, decl., 72; gender, 73; form 
dil, 74. 

Difference, ‘abl. of, degree of, 250. 

difficilis, comparison, 89. 4; constr., 
303. R. 

dignor, with abl., 245. a. 2. 

dignus, with abl., 245. a; with rela- 
tive clause, 320. 7. 

Diminutive endings, with compara- 
tives, 89. f; nouns and adjectives, 
164. a ; verbs, 167. d. 

Diphthongs, 1 ; sounds of, 16, 17; 
quantity, 18. 4, 347. 4. 

Direct object, 177, 237. 

Direct question, defined, 210. 

Direct quotation, 335. 

Direct reflexive, 196. a. 1. 

Direction, 235. 4. 

dis (di), inseparable prefix, 170. 6. 

Disjunctive conjunctions, case of 
noun after, 208. 

Dissimilation, 11. d. 

dissimilis, comp., 89. 4. 

Distance, acc. or abl., 257. 4; of 
time, 259. d@. 

Distributive numerals, 95; use, 95. 
a, b. 

Distributive pronouns, 202. d, é. 

diii, comp., 92. 

dives, decl., 85. 4,87. d. 

divim (divom), for dedrum, 4o. 7- 

d6, with inf., 273. a. 

-dé, nouns in, gend., 65. 0. 

doced, constr., 239. ¢. 

domi, locative, 258. d. 

domus, gend., 69. a; decl., 70. /; 
double stem of, 70. f; locative 
form, 70. g, p. 30. foot-n. 

domum, 258. 4; domé, id. a. 

ddnec, constr., 328. 

dond, double constr. of, 225. d. 

dos, decl., 54. 2. 

Double consonants, 3. a, 18. d. 

Double questions, 211 ; answers to, 
212. d. 

Doubting, vbs. of, constr., 319. d. 

Doubtful gender, 30. a. 

Dubitative subj., see Deliberative. 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


dubits an, non dubito quin, 33% 
g R.; non dubitd, w. inf. i 
No.2. 

diic, imperative, 128. c. 

dum, with present, 276.¢; with past, 
id. N.; with clause for pres. and 
perf. partic., 290. ¢, 2; w. subjunc- 
tive of proviso, 314, 328; of pur- 
pose, 328. 

dummodo, 314, 328. 

duo, decl., 94. 3. 

dipli, with verbs of condemning, 
220. a. 

Duration, acc. of, 240. ¢, 256; abl. 
of, 250. 6. 

-dus, participle in. See Gerundive. 

Duty, vbs. of, in apod., 308. ¢. 

dux, decl., 46. 


e, inserted in decl. II., 42; abl. of 
neuters in, 57. a, 3; final, quan- 
tity of, 348. 5; 2, stem-vowel, conj. 
II., 122; &, stem-vowel, conj. IIT., 
1220.0 

e as adv. ending, 148. a, c. 

-e neuters in, decl. III., 57. a, 65. ¢. 

-e, abl. of adjs. of 2 and 3 termina- 
tions, 84. 4. N., 85, 87. a. 

é in stem of decl. V., 72. 

é (preposition). See ex. 

-€, Gr. voc., 63.2; in gen. of decl. 
V5.7 4:-2.5"in dat, id. 

-€ for ae (oe), 12. c, 16. 

ea causa, 317. a. 

Early forms of alphabet, 67. 

ebur, decl., 49. 

ecquis, decl. - 105. @; meaning, z. 

Ecthlipsis, 359. @. 

edd (eat), conj., 140. 

Effecting verbs of, with perf. part., 
292. d; with ut-clause, 332. % 

efficid ut, 332. 

effierl, 142. c. 

effigiés, decl., 74. d. 

Effort, verbs of, with perf. part., 
292. @; with clause of result, 

Ginexere! 

egéns, decl., 35. 

egeo, constr., 223, 243. 7. 

ego, decl., 98. 

ei, diphthong, 1 ; sound of, 16, 17. 

-€is, patronymic, 164. d. 

-€ius, patronymic, 164. 4. 





347 


ius, adj. ending, 164. c. 

éiusmodi, IOI. a, 215. a. 

Electra, decl , 37. 

Elegiac stanza, 363. 

elephans, 63. ¢. 

-€lis, -Enus, adj. endings, 164. ¢, d. 

Elision, 359. ¢. 

Ellipsis, 177. ¢. N. 

Elliptical sentence, 177. ¢. N. 

-ellus, diminutive ending, 164. a. 

éluviés, decl., 74. d. 

Emphasis, 344. 

Enclitics, accent, 19. ¢; quantity, 
348. 1; cum, 99. ¢, 104. ¢, é¢; -met, 
-te, -pte, 99. /; -pse, IOI. N.; -que, 
see under that word. 

End of motion, acc. of, 258; w. vbs. 
that also take dat., 225. 4; dat. of, 
258. N. I ; two or more places as 
end of motion, 259. 4. 

Endings, signification of, 161-167 ; 
endings of verb, 117. 2, 118. See 
Personal Endings and -Termina- 
tions. ‘ 

English derivatives from Lat., spell- 
ing of, 15; Eng. words cognate 
with Lat., id. 

English method of pronunciation, 17. 

enim, use, 156. d; position, 156. & 
345- 4 

-€nsimus (or -ésimus), numeral adj. 
ending, 94. N. 

-énsis, gentile ending, 164. c. 

Enumeration, primum... 
T51.d. 

-€nus, adj. ending 164. c. 

Envy, verbs of, w. dat., 227. 

ed, used w. supine in -um, 302. R. 

ed, used with qué, 106. c; w. com- 
par., 250. R.; approaching abl. of 
cause, 250. N. 

e6 consilid ut, 317. a. 

Epicene nouns, 30. 4. 

Epistolary tenses, 282. 

epitomé, decl., 37. 

equester, decl., 84. a. 

-er, nom. ending, decl. II., 41, 42; 
decl. III., 53. 4, 54.1; gend., 65. 
@; -er in adjs., 82, 84.@; comp. 
of these, 89. a. 

erga, w. acc. after adjs., 234. ¢. 

ergo, use, 156. ¢; w. gen., 223. ¢. 

-ernus, adj. ending, 164. é. 


deinde, 


348 


ero-, noun stems in, decl. II., 41; 
éro- adj. stems in, 82. a. 

ES, root of esse, II. a. 

és, in nom. pl. of Gr. nouns, 63. /; 
gend. of nouns in, 65. a. 

-€s, nom., gend., 65. 4; formation, 
163. a. 

-és, gen. of Greek nouns in, decl. IT., 
43.@; gen. ending, decl. V., 74. a. 

esse, conj., 119; compounds of, see 
Irregular verbs; case after, 176. 4; 
dat. of poss. w., 231; future part. 
W., 293. a,c; position of forms of, 
344: os 

est, Giited with other words, 13. 2; 
est qui, 320. a2; est cum, 322. R.; 
est ut, 322. a, 2 

Esteeming, verbs of, constr., 239. a. 

-ester (-estris), adj. ending, 164. ¢; 
a noun-ending, 164. z, 12. 

et, use, 156. a; et ... « et, 1564; 
et repeated or omitted, 208. 6.1. 

etenim, use, 156. d, 208. ¢. 

Ethical dative, 236. 

etiam, use, I51.a@ ; in answers, 212.a. 

etiamsi, concessive, 313. ¢. 

etsI, use, 156.25 313. ¢. 

-étum, noun-ending, 164. z. 8. 

ETYMOLOGY, 4-123. 


Euphonic change, see Phonetic 
variations. 
-eus, Greek names in, 43; -eus 


(-€us), patronymic ending, 164. 4; 
adj. ending, 164. ¢, g, z, Io. 

évenit ut, 332. a. 

ex (6), 152. 5; use, 260. 4, 244. a. 
R.; in compounds, 170. a, 243. 4; 
abl. w., instead of part. gen., 216. 
¢}3 expressing position, 260. 4; to 
express place from which, 258 ; 
after its noun, 263. N.; w. abl. of 
gerund, 3o1. 

excelld, w. dat., 227. a. 

Exchanging, vbs. of, 252. c. 

Exclamation, form of, 210. ¢ R.; 
acc. in, 240. @; w. infin., 274; 
nom. in, 241. ¢. 

Exclamatory sentences, 171. ¢ ; acc. 
in, 240. d@; nom. in, 241. ¢. 

Exclamatory questions, 332. ¢. 

Existence, general expressions of, 
320. a. 

exléx, defect., 87. f. 3. 





INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


Expecting, hoping, etc., vbs. of, w. 
infin. clause, 330. f 

expénsum, 2092. N. 2. 

Explosives, see Mutes. 

exsilid, exsultd, w. abl., 245. a. 2. 

exspés, defect, 87. f 

exsulto, w. abl., 245. a. 2. 

exteri, use, QI. b 

exterior, 91. 4. 

exud, constr., 225. d. 


fac, imv., 128. c, 142 ; use, 269. g; 
fac né, in prohibition, 269. a. 

faciés, decl., 74 d. 

facilis, comp., 89. 4; constr., 303. R. 

facid, forms of, omitted, 206. ¢; w. 
abl., 244. @; accent of comp. of, 
19. d. facere ut, 332 and e. 

Factitative verbs, 175. 3. N. 

-factd, in compounds, 169. a. 

faenebris, decl., 84. a. N. 

fallit, w. acc., 237. ¢. 

falsus, comp., 91. d. 

famés, abl. of, 57. c. 

familiaris, decl., 57. 3. 

familias, in pater familias, etc., 36. 4. 

fas, w. supine in -i, 303. 

faux, decl., 54. 2, 79. ¢. 

Favor, verbs of, w. dat., 227. 

Fearing, verbs of, w. inf., 271°% 
ut), 331-7 

febris, decl., 56. 4, 57. 3. 

Feeling, nouns of, with gen., 217 ; 
impersonal verbs of, 146. 6, 221.6; 
animi, with adjs. of, 218. ¢. R.; gen. 
with verbs of, 221 ; animi, w. vbs. 
Ol, 22 Fo 633° acc: with, 237. 6; with 
quod-clause, 333. 4. 

Feet in Prosody, 355-357. 

félix, comp., 89 

Feminine, rule for gender, 29. 4. 

-fer, compounds of, 41 ; decl., 82. 

fer, imperative, 128. c. 

ferd, conj., 139; acceptum (expén- 
sum) ferre, 292. N. 2. 

Festivals, plural names of, 76. 1. 

-ficus, adjs. in, comparison of, 89. c. 

fidés, decl., 72. 

fid6 ’(confids), semi-deponent, 136; 
with‘abl., 254. d. 

fidus, comp., I. d. 

fieri, constr. with abl., 244. d. 

Fifth declension, 72~—74. 


(né, 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


filia, decl., 36. e. 

filius, voc., 40. c. 

Filling, words of, with abl., 248. c. 2. 

Final Clauses, defined, 180. ¢; 
constr. of, 317, 318; as subst. 
clauses, 331. 

Final conjunctions, 154. 4. 5, 6. 

Final syllables, rules of quantity, 
348. 

finis, decl., 57. 4. 

Finite verb, defined, 173. N.; subject 
of, E73. 55 

fid, conj., 142; in compounds, id. 
6; defective compounds of, id. c ; 
quantity of i in, 347. a. 3. 

First declension, 35-37. 

First conjugation, prin. parts, 122. 
¢; formation, 166. a; paradigms, 
pp. 72-75; verbs of, 130; verbs 
of, how formed, 166. a. 

fisus, as pres. part., 290. 0. 

fit ut, 332. a. 

Fitness, adjs. of, w. dat., 234. a, d. 

flagito, constr., 331. 

flocci, gen. of value, 252. 4. 

For, when expressed by prod, 236. R. 

fore, 147. c, fore ut, 288. 7. 

forem, 119. 6. 

forés, pl. only, 76. 3. 

Forgetting, vbs. of, 219; w. inf., 271. 

Formation of words, 157-170. 

Forms of the verb, 117 ff. 

forsitan (fors sit an) (forsan), 311. a. 
N. 3- . 

Fourth Conjugation, prin. parts, 


122. c; paradigm, p. 81; verbs,. 


how formed, 166. d. ° 

Fourth Declension, 68-71. 

Fractional expressions, 97. d, 382. 

Freedom, adjs. of, with abl., 243. d; 
vbs. of, 243. a. 

Frequentative verbs, 167. 4. 

frétus, with abl., 254. 2. 

Fricatives, 3. a. 

frigi, as adj., 87. /; comparison, 
90; constr., 233. a. N. 

fruor, fungor, with abl., 249; gerun- 
dive, 296. R. 

fugit, w. acc., 237. e. 

Fulness, adjs. of, 218. a. 

finebris, decl., 84. a. N. 

fungor, see fruor. 

fiir, decl., 54. 2. 





349 

Future Conditions, in ind. 
disc., 337. a. 

Future Tense, use, 115. a. I, 278 ; 
of infinitive pass., how formed, 
147.¢}; indicative for imper., 264. 
c, 269. f; of imperative, 269. d; 
uses of, 278 ; in indirect questions, 
334. @ ; fut. ind. for imv., 269. 7. 

Future Perfect, 115. a. 1; use of, 
281 ; represented in subj., 286. R. ; 
in conditions, 307. c. 

Future Infinitive, how formed, r1o. 
d. ; expressed with fore or futirum 
esse, 288. f; (rarely) in contrary 
to fact conditions in ind. disc., 
337: N- 3- 

Future Participle, use, 113. 4, 290, 
293, 308. @; fut. pass. part., 294. 
Future Perfect Subjunc. wanting, 

I10. a. 

Future Subjunctive wanting, IIo. a. 

futirum esse ut, see fore ut ; futirum 
fuisse ut, 337. N. 3. 


397 5 


G (the character), 6. 

Games, plural names of, 76. I. 
gauded, conj., 136; with abl., 254. 
6; w. quod or ind. disc., 333. 4. 
Gems, gender of, names of, 29. 4, 


39. a. - 

Gender, kinds of, 28 ; general rules 
for, 29; common, doubtful, epi- 
cene, 30; nouns, decl. I., gend., 
35; decl., II., 39; nouns, decl. 
IIL., gend. according to endings, 
65; of nouns, decl. IV., 69 ; decl. 
V., 73; Syntax, agreement in 
gend., 181; of appositives, 184. 
6; of adjs., 186; adjs. with nouns 
of different genders, 187, cf. 189. 
c; of rel., 199. 3d. 

General conditions, defined, 304. d; 
constr. of, 309; relatives in, 
316. a. 

General truths after past tense (in 
sequence of tenses), 287. d; in 
pres., 276; in general condition; 
309. a. 

GENITIVE, Ztymology. Meaning, 31. 
6; terminations of, 32; plural in 
-um, 33 ; gen. in -ai and -As, decl. 
I., 36. a, 6; in-i for ii, decl. II., 
40. 6; in-iof prop. nouns of decl. 


350 


III, 43. @; gen. plur. in -im 
(6m), for -drum, 40. ¢; -um for 
-ium, decl. III., 59; -ds for -is, 
63. 7#; gen. plur. in -um, 70. ¢; 
in -i or -€ for éi, decl. V., 74. a; 
of adjs. in -ius, 83; gen. plur. in 
-ium or -um, 87. ¢, d 

GENITIVE, Syntax, 213-223; gen- 
eral use, 213. Subjective gen., 
214. Possessive gen., id. a—d; in 
appos. w. poss. pron., I97. ¢; 
compared w. dat., 231. R.; gen. 
in predicate, 214. c, @; gen. of 
adj. for neut. nom., 214. R.; gen. 
of substance or material, 214. ¢; 
for appositive, 214. 7; gen. of 
quality, 215. Partitive, 216. Ob- 
jective gen., 217; w. adjs., 218, 
234. @; w. verbs of memory, 
219; charge and penalty, 220 ; 
of feeling, 221; w. impers., mis- 
eret, etc., 221. 5; w. réfert and 
interest, 222 ; of plenty and want, 
223; of exclamation, 223; w. 
potior, id. a; w. other vbs., id. 4; 
w. eged and indiged, 223, 243. /; 
gen. replaced by dat., 226. 4; of 
value, 252. a, 4; gen. of gerundive, 
2098. 

genius, voc. of, 40. c. 

géns, or family, names, 8o. a. 

Gentile adjectives, 164. ¢. 

gentilis, 57. a. 

geni, decl., 68 ; gend., 69. 4. 

genus, decl., 49. 

-ger, compounds of, 41. 

Gerund, form, 109. 6; use, 114. @; 
gerundive used instead, 296. 
SYNTAX, 295-301 ; gen. of, 298 ; 
pred. use, purpose, id. R. ; w. obj. 
gen., id. @; dat. of, 299; in law 
phrases, etc., id. d; acc. of, 300; 
abl. of, 301 ; gerund in apposition, 
301. R. 

Gerundive, meaning and form, 113. 
d; of dep. verb, 135. @; use as 
part. or adj., 294; of itor, id. c; 
to denote purp. after certain vbs., 
id. d; used for gerund, 296. Ger- 
undive constructions in cases, 
gen., 298; dat., 299; acc., 300; 
abl., 301. Impersonal w. esse, w 
ACC., 237. B- 





INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


Giving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 294. d. 

glaciés, decl., 74. d. 

glis, decl., 54. 2. 

glorior, w. abl., 254. 4. 

Gnomic perfect, 279. c. 

-gd, nouns in, gend., 65. 4. 

gracilis, decl., 87. f; comp., 89. 3. 

Grammar, how developed, p. 124. 

Grammatical gender, 28. a. 

gratia, w. gen., 223. ¢, 245. ¢; w. 
gen. of gerund, 318. 

Greek accusative (synecdochical), 
240. ¢. 

Greek nouns, decl. I., 37; decl. IL., 
43; decl. IIT., 63, 64. 

Greek proper names, quantity of, 
347. 2. 5- 

Groups of words., conjuncs. w., 208. 
QD: 

gris, decl., 60. a. 

Guilt, adjs. of, w. gen., 218. a. 


H (breathing), 3. 4; omitted in 
sound, 11. 6. 1; omitted in spell- 
ing, 12. 6; in Prosody, 347. a, 
359- ¢: 

habeo, with infinitive, 273. @; with 
perfect participle, 292. c; future 
imperative habétd in sense of con- 
sider, 269. é. 

habilis, w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299, 
foot-n. ; 

haered, w. dat., 227. ¢; w. abl., id. 
3. N. 

Happening, verbs of, constr., 332. a. 

Have, perf. with, origin, 292. «, 
foot-n. 

havé (avé), defective verb, 144. f 

Having, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 294. d. 

hebes, decl., 87. a; comp., 89. 

Help, verbs of, with dat., 227. 

Heroic verse, 362. 

héros, decl., 64. 

Hesitation, clauses of, w. quin, 319. 
d; verbs of, constr., 271. 

Heteroclite adjs., 87. 7. 

Hexameter verse, 362. 

LTidtus, 359. é. 

hic, 100. 6; decl., 101; use, 102, @, 
SF; quantity, 348. 10, Ex. 

hiemps (for hiems), II. ¢. 

hilaris (-us), 87.7 

Himself (ipse, s&), 102. N. 


INDEX TO WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


Hindering, verbs of, with né or 
quominus, or Inf., 331. ¢.2 ; 332.g. 

Hindrance, verbs of, with quéminus, 
319. c; with negatives, followed 
by quin, 332. g. 

Historical infinitive, 27 5. 

Historical present, 276. d; followed 
by primary or secondary tenses, 
287. @. 

Historical perfect, 115. ¢. 2, 279. 

hodié, loc. form, 74. c. 

honor (-ds), decl., 50. 

Hoping, verbs of, with infinitive 
clause, 330. 7 

horizon, decl., 63. d. 

Hortatory subjunctive, 266; in con- 
cession, id. ¢ (cf. 313. 2) ; in proviso, 
314; in obligation, 266. e; w. force 
of protasis, 310. 3. 

hortor, constr., 331. 

hospes, decl., 87. b. 

hospita (fem. of hospes), 85. c. 

* hiiusmodi, Iot. a. 

humi, 40. a, locative use of, 258. d. 

humilis, comp., 89. 6. 

Hundreds, how declined, 94. d. 


I, as vowel and as cons., p. 5, 4 

i, primary suffix, 160. ¢. I. 

i, in Greek voc., 63. 2, 64; for € in 
conj. II., 126. 6. 2; for -€ in conj. 
IIL., 126. ¢. 1; vbs. in id- of conj. 
III., id. e; in verb replaced by 
cons., 123. 6. 1; inserted in verb 
stem, id. 2; suppressed in obicit, 
etc., 10. @; 1 (s¢mgle) in gen. of 
nouns in -ius (-ium), 40. 4; in gen. 
of noun in -és, 43. a; in abl. of 
decl. III., 57; in neut. nom., 65. 
c; in gen. decl. IV., 70. @; in gen., 
dat., decl. V., 74. @; in dat. of 
inus, etc., 83. 

i, in perfect, 118. N. 

i- stems. decl. III., 51-59 ; confused, 
p- 23, foot-n.; signs ‘of, 553 in 
adjectives, 84; cases Becta: 
-i, 84. 4, cf. 55, 57, 87. 

-ia, nom., acc. pl. decl. {It, »55- 4; of 
adjs., 84. b. 

-ia for -iés, decl. V., 74. 4. 

-ia, ending of abstract nouns, 163. ¢. 

Iambus, 356. a. 

-ibam for -iébam, conj. IV., 128. e. 





351 


-ibd for -iam, 128. ¢. 1. 

-icius, 164. g. 

Lctus, 355. Ry» 358. a. 

-icus, -icius, 164. c, 2, g. 

id-, stem ending, 63. 4 

id genus, 240. 6. 

id quod, 200. e. 

id temporis, 216. a, 3; 240. d. 

idcirco, as correl., 156. ¢, 317. a. 

idem, decl., ro1 ; derivation, 100. 4; 
used emphatically, 195. ¢; equiv. 
to adv., id. e. 

Ides (13th or 15th of month), how 
reckoned, 376. 6. 

-idés, (idés) in patronymics, 164. 6. 
iddneus, comparison, 89. @; w. dat. 
of gerund, etc., 299, foot-n. 

iddneus qui, 320. "f 

Idis, decl. IV., gender, 69. a. 
Ides. 

-idus, verbal adj. ending, 164. 7. 

-ie, in voc. of adjs. in -ius, 81. a. 

iéns (part. of ed), decl., 85. 4. 

-ier in inf. pass., 128. ¢. 4. 


See 


* -iés, in decl. V. = -ia, decl. I., 74. 4. 


-iés, abstr. ending, 163. e. 

igitur, meaning, 156. e; position, 
id. 2. 

ignis, decl., 57. 0. 

-ii (or -i), in gen. decl. II., 40. 6; of 
adjs., 81. a. 

-ile, noun-ending, 164. i, 6 

-ilis, -bilis, verbal adj. ending, 164. 


m. 
-ilis, nominal adj. ending, 164. d. 
Illative conjunctions, 154. @. 4. 

ille, forms, 100. @; decl., 1or ; use, 
102. 6, f; combined with -ce, Ior. 

illic, decl., 1or. 

-illd, verbs ending in, 167. d. 

illus, diminutive ending, 164. a. 

illustris, decl., 84. a, N. 

-im, accus. ending, decl. III., 55, 56. 

-im in pres. subj., 128. d, 2. 

imber, decl., 51. 4, 54, 57. &. 

immane quantum, 334. ¢. 

imm6, how used, 209. d. 

Imperative mood, 108. 4; tenses of, 
110. ¢; how used, 112. ¢; w. iam 
didum, 276. a. N. 2 ; in commands, 
269 ; 3d pers., 269. ¢; forms in 
indir. disc., 339; fut., 269. d, e; 
dic, diic, fac, fer, 128. c; some 


352 


verbs used chiefly in, 144. f; vari- 
ous periphrases for imv., 269. f, g; 
Imperative as protasis, 310. 4. 
Imperative Sentence, 171. d. 
-Imperfect tense, defined, 115. 4; 
use, 277; in descriptions, id. a; 
with iam did, etc., id. 6; inceptive 
and conative, id. c; of surprise, id. 
d ; in dialogue, id. ¢ ; equals coud, 
etc., id. ¢; epistolary, 282 ; repre- 
sented by perf. subj., 287. 4. 3; 
imperf. subj., sequence, 287. f, g. 
impero, constr., 331. 
Impersonal construction of pass. w. 
infin. clause, 330. @. 2, d. I, ¢. 
Impersonal Verbs, synopsis of, 145 ; 
classified, 146; passive of intran- 
sitives, 146. d, 230; impersonals, 
‘miseret, etc., with gen., 221. 3; 
libet, licet, with dat., 227. ¢ ; acc. 
w. decet, etc., 237. ¢. 
impertid, constr., 225. d. 
impetro, constr., 331. 
imple6, constr., 223, 248. ¢c. R. 
implico, constr., 225. d. 
impon6, constr., 260. a. 
in, neg. prefix, 170. c. 
in, prep., use, 152. ¢; comp., w. vbs., 
170. @3; in, w. acc., 259. 6; w. acc., 
penalty, 220. 6; vbs. comp., w. 
dat., 228; in w. acc., w. adjs., 
234. ¢; in citations, 258. c. N. 2; 
place where, 258. c. 1; in idioms 
of time, 259. 4; w. abl. of gerund, 
301. 
in-, 63. a. 
in, primary suffix. See an. 
Inceptive or Inchoative verbs, 167. a. 
Inclination, adjs. of, constr., 234. 
a, ¢. 
inclutus, comp., 9I. d. 
Incomplete action, tenses of. 
Continued action. 
Increment, defined, 349; of nouns 
and adjs., 350; of verbs, 351. 
Indeclinable nouns, gender of, 29. c. 
Indefinite antecedent, relative with, 
with subj., 320. a. and N. 
Indefinite pronouns, decl., 104, 105. 
Syntax, 202, 203; indef. relative 
may introduce conditional clause, 
304. a. 316. 
Indefinite subject omitted, 206. 4; 


See 





INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


use of 2d person for, 266. a; in 
general conditions, 309. a; licet 
clarum fierl, 272. a. N. 

Indefinite value, 252. a, 6. 

Indicative mood, 108. 6; how used, 
112. a, 264; in apod. of conditions 
contrary to fact, 308. 4, c, 311. c; 
in causal clauses, 321; in clause 
with quod, 333- 

indiged, with gen., 223, 243. 7. 

indignus, with abl., 245. a; w. qui 
and subjunc., 320. f. 

INDIRECT DISCOURSE, 335; list of 
verbs that take, p. 296, foot-n.; 
direct and indir. quotation, 335. 
Moods in ind. disc., 336; verb of 
saying implied, id. N. 2. Subj. 
acc., id. a. Subord. clause when 
explanatory, id. 6; clauses w. rel. 
which is equiv. to demonstr., id. 
c. Tenses of infin. in ind. disc., 
330. A; tenses of subj., 336. B; 
subj. depending on perf. inf., 336. 
B.N. 2; pres. and perf. after secon- 
dary tense (Repraesentatio), id. a. 
Conditional sentences in ind. disc., 
337 3 Questions in ind. disc., 338; 
Deliberative subj. in, id. a; Com- 
mands in ind. disc., 339 ; prohibi- 
tion, id. N. 2. Informal ind. disc., 
349 341- 

Indirect Questions, defined, 210. a; 
syntax, 334; fut. tense in, id. a; 
deliberative subj. in, id. 4; indic. 
in, id. d. 

Indirect quotation, 335. 

Indirect object, 177, 224, 225, 226, 
227. 

Indirect reflexive, 196. a, z. 

indud, double constr. of, 225. d. 

ineptus, constr., 299. foot-n. 

inermis or -us, 87. 7 

infera, comp., QI. 6. 

inferi, use, 91. 6. 

inferior, comparison, QI. a. 

Infinitive used as noun, gender, 29. 
c; with gen., 214. d. See also 
Infinitive Mood, Syztax. 

INFINITIVE Moop, Ztymology, 108. 
6; tenses of, 110. 2; how used, 
112. d; pass. in -ier, 128. ¢. 4 ; fut. 
inf. of deponents, 135 ¢; subject in 
acc., 173. 2, 240. f. - 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


INFINITIVE MOOD, Syxtax, 270-275; 
used as subject, 270 ; complemen- 
tary inf., 271; verbs having subj. 
or infin., id. a, cf. 331; inf. for 
subjunc. clause, 331. ¢; with sub- 
ject acc., 272; case of predicate 
noun, id. 4; inf. of purpose, 273; 
w. adjs., in poetry, id. d@; of 
result, id. ¢; in exclamations, 274 
(sequence, 287. N. 1). Historical 
inf,, 275. Tenses of inf., 288; 
perf. instead of pres., id. d, e; fore 
ut, etc., for fut. inf., id. f Inf. in 
indir. disc., 336; tenses, 336. A. 

Infinitive Clauses, as subj. or obj., 
330; w. pass. verbs, id. a-d. See 
also Indirect Discourse. Cf. also 
272. 

infitias, use, 258. J. R. 

Inflection, defined, 20; of decl. and 
conjugation, 26. 

Informal Indirect Discourse, 340, 

= Ee 

infra, use, 152. a. 

ingéns, decl., 87. a ; comp., QI. d. 

Inherited differences of form, 8. 1 + 
in vowels, 9. a-d ; transposition of 
vowel and liquid, id. d. 

iniissi, defect., 71. 4. 

inops, decl., 87. a, d. 

inquam, inquit, 144. 4; position of, 
345. ¢; in direct quotation, 336. 
N. I. 

Inseparable particles, 170. 4. 

Insertion of consonants (p in simp- 
Bl) pA Tienee 

insidiae, dat. with, 227. d. 

Insperg6, constr., 225. d. 

instar, w. gen., 223. ¢. 

Inst0, constr., 331. 

Insulam, ad, 258. 4. N. 3. 

Instrument, abl. of, 248. c. 

Instrumental, abl. constructions, 242. 

‘Integral part, subjunc. of, 340-342. 

Intensive pronoun, 100, 102. e. and 
N., 195. f-2. 

Intensive verbs, 167. 4 (cf. ¢). 

inter, use, 152. @; in comp., 170. a; 
vbs. comp. with, 228; position, 
263. N.; inter sicarids, 220. 6 
inter, w. gerund, 300. 

inter sé (reciprocal), 99. d, 196. f. 

interclidd, constr., 225. d and N. 2. 





353 


interdic6, constr., 225. d, N. I. 
interest, constr., 222; with ad, id. 3d. 
interior, comp., QI. a. 

Interjections, def., 25; list, p. 104; 
w. dat., 235. ¢. 

Interlocked order of words, 344. 2. 

Intermediate Clauses, Syntax of, 
340-342. 

Interrogative advs., use, 210. ¢; 
position, 344. 4. 

Interrogative particles, list of, 149. 
a; use, 210. 

Interrogative pronouns, 104, 105; 
use, 210. € ; position, 344. 4. 

Interrogative sentences, 171. 3; 
forms of, 210-212. 

intra (interior), 91. 

Intransitive verbs, 175. @, 177 and 
N.; used impersonally in pass., 
146. @; dat. with, 226 ff.; used 
transitively, w. acc. and dat., 227. 
T (cb. 2372. N-): 

-inus, adj. ending, 164. c. 

initilis, w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299. 
foot-n. 

invictus, comp., QI. d. 

invidia, w. dat., 227. d. 

invitus, comp., QI. d. 

-id, noun-ending, 163. 4; gend., 65. 4. 

-id, verbs in, conj. III. ; paradigm, 
p- 80; conj. IV., p. 81; deriva- 
tion, 166. d. 

ipse, decl., 101; use, 102. ¢ and N., 
195. /-/; used instead of reflexive, 
196. a, 2. N. and z. 

iri, in fut. infin. pass., 141, 147. ¢. 

Ironical statement not diff. in form 
from question, 210. 4. N. 

is, decl., 101; use, 102. ad, f, 106; 
use emphatically, 195. c; used 
‘instead of reflexive, 196. a, 2. N. 
and 2. 

-is, nom. ending, gend., 65. 4; -is, 
patronymic, 164. 6. 

-is-, -iss-, -sis-, dropped in perf. 
128. 

-is, nom. and acc. pl., decl. IIT., 58 
(cf. p. 23, foot-n.) ; of adjs., 84. 4, 
87. c; Greek nom. ending, 63. c. 

-is, itis, stems in, 59. 

Islands, names of, loc. use, 258. ¢, 2 
and R.; to-which, 258. 4, from 
which, a. 


354 


-issé, verbs ending in, 167. c. 

iste, decl., 101 ; use, 102. ¢. 

istic, decl., ror. 

ita, correl. with ut, 107 ; 
212. a; ita ut, 319. R. 

itaque, accent, 19. c; compared with 
ergo, 156. ¢; used with ergo, 208. 
é; position of, 345. 4. 

iter, stem of, 60. c. 

Iterative verbs 
167. 6 

-itd, verbs in, 167. 3. 

-itus, adj. ending, 164. f 

-ium, noun-ending, 163. f, 164. z 
11: 

-ium, gen. plur., decl. III., 55. a; of 
adjs., 84. 4, 85, 87. ¢. 

-ius, gen. sing. ending, 83 ; quantity, 
347-4. I. 

-ius, adjs. in, gen., voc., 81. @ ; forma- 
tion of adjs. in, 164. 9, m. 

ivus, verbal adj. ending, 164. 2. 


in answers, 


(-t, -itd, -s9), 


J (the character), 4. N. 

jam, use, I5I. 5; w. 
oy ia Rae 

jamdii, w. pres., 276. a; w. imperf., 
277.6 

iamdidum, w. pres., 276. a; w. im- 

’ perf., 277. 5; w. imperative, 276. 

@. N. 2. 

iecur, decl., forms from different 
stems, 60. c. 

iubar, decl., 57. a. 

iubed, w. acc., 227. a; w. inf., 271. 4, 
330. 2. and 4, 2., 331. a. 

iucundus, constr., 303. R. 

iigerum, measure, 381. 

Julian Calendar, 376, head-n. ; 376. ¢. 

iungd, w. abl. or dat., 227. e, 248. 
aR. 

Iippiter, stem and decl., 60. 4; plu- 
ral, 75. a. 

itissi, defect., 71. 3. 

iiistd, w. compar., 247. 4. 

iuvat, w. acc., 237. ¢. 

iuvenis, masc. adj., 88. 5; how com- 
pared, 91.¢; decl., 59. 

iuvod, with acc., 227. a. 

iixta, position, 263. N. 


imperf., 


Kalendae, 376. a. 
Kindred signification, acc. of, 238. 





INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


Knowing, verbs of, w. acc. and inf., 


271, 272, 330. I. 
Knowledge, adjs. of, w. gen., 218. a. 


L, nouns in -l, gend., 65. ¢; adj. 
stems in 1-, 85. 

Labials, 3. 

labord, w. abl., 245. a: 2. 

lacus, decl., 68; dat. and abl. pl: in 
-ubus, 70. d. 

laed6, constr., w. acc., 227. a. 

laetor, laetus, w. abl., 254. 4. 

lampas, decl., 63. 7, 64. 

lated, w. acc., 239. a. 

latet, w. acc., 237. ¢. 

latifundium, 168. 0. 

Learning, verbs of, w. inf., 271. 

-léns, -lentus, see -oléns, -olentus. 

les, decl., 49. 

Leonidas, decl., 37. 

Letters, classification of, I-5. 

levis, decl., 84; comp., 89. 

leviter, comp., 92. 

liber, adj., decl., 41. ¢. 

Liber, decl., 41. ¢. 

liberi, noun, 41. ¢c, 76. 2. 

libet, impers., 146. ¢; 
227.6: 

licet, impers., synopsis, 145; use, 
146. c; w. dat., 227. ¢; w. predi- 
cate dat., 272. a; w. subjunctive, 
meaning although, 313. 4; licet 
eam, licet mé ire, licet mihi Ire, 
331. Z and N. 3. 

Likeness, adjs. of, w. dat., 234. a; 
w. gen., id. d. 

Limiting word, meaning of, 178. 4. 

Linguals, 3. 

linter, decl., 51. 4, 54. I. 

Liquids, 3. a; stems of, decl. IIL, 
48-50. 

-lis, adjs. in, comp., 89. 4. 

Litotes, 209. ¢. 

-lium, noun ending, 163. 7 

Locative abl., 254, 258. ¢. 13; idio- 
matic use, id. a. 

LOcATIVE case, 31. 2; in abl., 242 ; 
of decl. I., 36. ¢; decl. II., 40. a2; 
decl. III., 62 ; decl. IV. (domi), 70. 
£; foot-n. ; decl. V., 74. ¢; forms, 
258. ¢. 2, d. With abl. in apposi- 
tion, 184. ¢; relative adverb used to 
refer to, 201. f; animi, 218. ¢. R., 


w. dat., 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


223. ¢; locative used to express 

where, 258. ¢; domi, etc., id. d. 
ocd, abl. without prep., 258. f I. 
locd, verb, constr., 260. a. 


locum capere, w. dat. of gerund, etc.,. 


299. a. Sa 
Long and Short, see Quantity. 
longius, without quam, 247. c. 
lynx, decl., 63. 7. 


M, final, elision of, 359. @. 

macte virtiite, use and constr., 
241. d. 

magis, as sign of comparative, 89. 
d@; comps. of, w. quam, 262. N. 

magni, gen. of value, 252. a. 

magnus, comparison, go. 

Main clause, defined, 180. 6. 

maiestatis, with words of accusing, 
etc., 220. a. 

maior nati, QI. c. 

maiorés, signification of, 76. 2. 

Making, verbs of, constr., 239. a. 


male, comp., 92; compounds of, 


with dat., 227. ¢. 

mald, conj., 138. 

malus, comparison, 9o. 

mando, constr., 331. 

mane, defect. noun, 57. ¢. 

maned, with abl., 254. 4. 

mansuétus, 169. c. 

manus, decl., 68; gender, 69. 

Manner, adv. of 148. Abl. of, hard 
to distinguish from specification, 
253. N. Manner implied in part., 
292. 

Manner, abl. of, 248. and R. 

mare, decl., 57. a, 59. 

mari, loc., 258. @. 

mas, decl., 54. 2. 

Masculines, rules for gender, 29. 

Masculine adjectives, 88. 4. 

Material, adjectives denoting, 164. 
£3; gen. of, 214. ¢, f; abl. of, 244. 
and c-e. 

maximé, as sign of superl., 89. d. 

Means, nouns denoting, 163. c; abl. 
of, 248. and ¢ ; participle implying 
means, 292. 

Measure, gen. of, 21§. 5 (cf. 257. a). 

Measures in Prosody, 355-357; 
names of, 356; contracted or 
resolved, 357. 





355 


Measures of value, 377-380; of 
length, 381; of weight, 382; of 
capacity, 383. 

medeor, medicor, with dat. or acc., 
227. 6. 

mediocris, decl., 84. a. N. 

Meditative verbs, 167. c. 

medius, (middle part of), 193. 

melior, decl., 86. 

melius est, tense of infin. after, 288. ¢. 

memini, conj., 143. ¢; in pres. 
sense, 143. N., 279. ¢; imperative 
of, 269. ¢; memini with pres. infin., 
336. A, N. I. 

memor, decl., 87. a. 

Memory, adjs. of, constr., 218. a; 
verbs of, constr., 219. 

-men, -mentum, noun-endings, 163. 
¢; -men, gend., 65. ¢. 

ménsis, decl., 59. 

meridiés, gend., 73. 

-met (enclitic), 99. f. 

Metathesis, 124. a. N. 

Metre, see Prosody. 

metud, with dat. or acc., 227. ¢; w. 
subjunc., 331. /; with inf., 271. 

meus, decl., 98. 3; syntax of, 197. a, 
214d 2. 

Middle voice, 240. ¢. N. 

Mile, English feet in, 381. 

miles, decl., 46. 

Military expressions, dat. in, 233. 4; 
abl. of accomp. without cum, 248. 
a.N. 

militiae (locative), 258. d. 

mille (milia), decl. and constr., 94. ¢. 

minimé, compar., 92; use, 93. ¢3 W. 
neg. force, 209. ¢; in answer 
(“no”), 212. a. 

ministr6, w. infin., 273. a. 

minor nati, QI. c. 

minoris, gen. of value, 252.a,d. 

minus, compar., 92; use, 93.¢; with 
si and qué, = zo, 209. ¢; constr. 
without quam, 247. c. 

-minus, -mnus, verbal adjective end- 
ings, 164. 2. 

miror si, 333. 3. R. 

mirum quam (quantam), with indica- 
tive, 334. e. 

misce6, with abl. or dat., 227. e. 3 N., 
248. a. R. 

miser, decl., 82 ; comp., 89. a. 


356 


miseré, comp., 92. 

misereor, with gen., 221. a. 

miserésco, with gen., 221. a. 

miseret, 146. 4; with gen. and acc., 
221. 6; other constr., ¢. 

miseror, with acc., 221. a. 

-mnus, see -minus. 

Modesty, subjunc. of, 311. d. 

Modification of subj. or pred., 178. 

Modifiers, position of, 343, 344; of 
negative, 345. d. 

modo. . . modo, 208. d. 

modo (modo né) with subjunctive of 
proviso, 314. 

molaris, decl., 57. a. 

moned, conj., p. 76; constr., 219. ¢, 
238. 6 and Nn. 

-mOnia, -monium, noun-endings, 163. 


c. 

Monosyllables, quantity, 348. 1-3. 

Months, gender of names of, 29. a ; 
decl. of names of in -ber, 84. a; 
names of, 376, head-n.; divisions 
of, in Roman Calendar, 376. 

Moods, names and uses of, 108. 4, 
112. Syntax of, 264-275. 

Moods in temporal causes, how dis- 
tinguished, 323. . 

Mora, in Prosody, 355. a. 

morigerus, decl., 82. a. 

mos est ut, 332. 

Mother, name of w. prep. 244. 
a. R. 

Motion, how expressed, 225. 4, 229. 
a, 243. 6 ; indicated by compounds, 
237. d@; implied, 259. g. 

Motion, end of, see End of Motion. 

Motive, how expressed, 245. 4. 

Mountains, names of, gender, 29. a. 

muliebris, decl., 84. a. N. 

multa nocte, 193. N. 

Multiplication expressed by distribu- 
tives, 95. ¢. 

Multiplicatives, 97. 

multum (-d), comp., 92. 

multus, comparison, go. 

mis, decl., 54, cf. 54. 2. 

miisica (-€), decl., 37. 

Musical accent, 358. 

miutare, constr., 252. c. 

Mutes, 2, 3; mute stems, decl. III., 
44-47 ; apparent, 47. @, 54. 

mythos, decl., 43. 





INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


N, 2. 6; n adulterinum, id. 

N as final letter of stem (leén-), 
48. 

nais, decl., 64. 

nam (enclitic), in questions, 210. f. 

nam, namque, use, 156. d, 208. e. 

Names of men and women, 80. 

Naming, vbs. of, w. two accs., 
239. a. 

Nasals, 2. 4, 3. 

natalis, decl., 57. d. 

natii (maior, minor), 9I. ¢. 

natus, etc., w. abl. of source, 244. a. 

navis, decl., 57. d. 

-nd, -nt, vowel short before, 18. f 

-ndus, verbal adj. ending, 164. 0; 
gerundive in, 113. d. 

-ne (enclitic), use in questions, 210. 
a-d ; in double questions, 211 ; w. 
force of nonne, 210. d ; orig. mean- 
ing, id. N.; in exclamatory ques- 
tions, 332. ¢; quantity, 348. 1. 

né, neg. of hortatory subj., 266. R.; 
w. subjunctive of proviso, 314. @ ; 
in prohibitions, 269. a; in conces- 
sions, 313. @; in final clauses, 
317; == nédum, 317.c. R.; in sub- 
stantive clauses, with verbs of 
hindering, 331. ¢. 23 of fearing, 
id. f; omitted after cave, id. R. 

né non, w. vbs. of fearing, 331. 7 

Nearness adjs. of, with dat., 234. a; 
w. gen., id. d. 

nec enim, 156. d. 

Necessity, verbs of, with perf. pass. 
inf., 288. d; in apodosis, 308. ¢, 
SUA e: 

necne in double questions, 211. 

nédum, 317. c. R. and N. 

nefas, with latter supine, 303. 

Negation, perfect preferred in, 
279. a. 

Negative answer, 210. ¢c; 212 anda. 

Negative particles, list of, 149. ¢; 
two negatives, 150, 209. a; use of, 
209; form different from Eng- 
lish, 209. 6; neg. answers, 212; 
neg. proviso, 314. @; neg. condi- 
tion, 315. @; purpose, 317 ; result, 
319. a, d, R. ;*position of, 345. a. 

nego, better than dicd . . . non, 
209. 0. 

negotium do ut, 331. 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


ném46, use of, 202. /; ném6 non, 150. 4. 

neque (nec), awd not, 156. a; neque 
enim, use, 156. ¢; neque after a 
neg., 209, a... 

nequam, in decl., 87. £; comparison 
of, 90 

nequed, conj., 144. g. 

né .. . quidem, use, 151. ¢; after 
non, 209. a ; position of, 345. 4. 

néquis, decl., 105. a. - 

nescid quis, use, 202. a; as indefinite 
without subj., 334. ¢. 

-neus, adj. ending, 164. g. 

Neuter acc. as adv., 148. d. 

Neuter adjs., special uses of, 189. 

Neuter verbs, see Intransitive Verbs. 

Neuter gender, general rule for, 29. 
c; cases alike in, 33. 4; endings 
of decl. III., 65. ¢. 

Neuter pron. as cognate acc., 238. 4. 

Neuter passives, 136. 

Neuter verbs, 175, 176; with cog- 
nate acc., 238; having passive 
sense, with ab, 246. a. 

Neuter passives, 136. 

ni, nisi, use of, 315. a. 

-nia, -nium, noun-endings, 163. 7. 

niger, decl., 82. 

nihil, contr. to nil, 347. ¢. 

nihili, gen. of value, 252. 4. 

nimirum quam, used as indefinite 
without subjunc., 334. ¢. 

ningit, 146. a. 

nisi and si non, 315.@; nisi si, id. 2 ; 
nisi vérd (forte), id. 4. 

nitor, with abl., 254. d. 

nix, plur., 75. 3. 

/Vo, in answers, how expressed, 212. 

noli, in prohibitions, 269. a. 

nolo, conj., 138; part. as dat. of 
reference, 235. ¢. 

nomen, decl., 49; omen, denoting 
gens., 80. a. 

nomen est, with pred. dat., 231. 4, ¢. 

Nominal adjectives, 164. a—2. 

NOMINATIVE defined, 31. @; how 
formed from stem, 32. 4; nom. 
suffix, 160. ¢c; neut. pl. nom. and 
acc. alike, 33. 4; in decl. II., 38; 
in decl. III., 44, 45, 48, 51; of 
neuters, i-stems, 51.¢ ; in u-stems, 
decl. IV., 68 ; in e-stems, decl. V., 


72; 





357 


NOMINATIVE, Syntax: as subject, 
173. 1; in predicate, 176, 4, 185; 
verb-agreement with, 204; used 
for vocative, 241, @; in exclama- 
tions, id. ¢ (cf. 240. @); with opus 
in predicate, 243. ¢. R.; nom. of 
gerund supplied by inf., 295. R. 

non, compounds of, Iso. a, 4; in 
answers, 212. a. 

non dubitd quin, 319. 7; 332. g. R. 

non modo, after a negative, 209, a. 

nonne, in questions, 210. c. 

non némo, non nillus, etc., 150. a. 

non quia, ndn quod, non qué, non 
quin; ctc.5:1:56: 75 321k. 

non satis, 93. ¢. 

Nones (nénae), 376. c. 

nos, decl., 98. 1 ; for ego, 98. 1. 4. 

noster, for poss. gen., 99. @, 197. a. 

nostri, as objective gen., 99. c, 194. 4. 

nostrim, as partitive gen., 99. 4, 
194. 6. 

novendecim, 94. c. 

Noun and adj., forms of verb, 10g. 

Nouns defined, 25. @; indecl., gend., 
29. ¢; declension of, 32-78; deri- 
vative forms of, 161-163; used as 
adjectives, 88. c, 188. d@; rule of 
agreement, 183; w. part. gen., 216. 
a; w. obj. gen., 217; governing 
acc., 237./; noun as_protasis, 
310. a. 

Nouns of agency, 161; formation, 
162. 

nox, decl., 54. 

-ns, as adjective ending, 85. a; par- 
ticiples in, decl., 85,87. d@; w.gen., 
218. 6; w. acc., id. N. I and 2. 

-nt, stems in, decl., 87. 4. 

niibés, decl., 52. 

nubd, with dat., 227. e. 

nillus, decl., 83. 

num, force of, 210. ¢; in indirect 
questions, id. f 

Number, 31; nouns, defect. in, 75, 
76; variable in, 79. a; peculiar, 
uses, id. 4, ¢; number in verbs, > 
108. @; agreement in, 181; with 
appositives, 184. a; with adjs., 
186, 187, @; with verbs, 204, 
205. ¢. 

Numeral advs., 96. 


Numerals, 94-97; cardinals and 


358 


ordinals, 94; distributives, 95; 
advs.,96; others, 97. Position of 
numerals adjs., 344. 4. 

numquis, decl., 105.¢@; meaning and 
form, id. 2. 

nunc, compared with iam, 151. 2. 

nunc... nunc, 208. d. 

nurus, gend., 69. a. 

-nus, adj. ending, 164. d. 


o for u after u or v, 7; in decl. II., 
38. N. 

-6 in nom., gend., 65. a. 

-6, -Onis, noun-ending, 162. c, 164, ¢. 

o-stems, decl. II., 38; in adjs., 82, 

_ 83; verbs from o-stems, 166. a. 2. 

O si, w. subjunc. of wish, 267. 4 and 
Nock: 

ob, use, 152. @; in comp., 170. a; in 
comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 228; to 
express cause, 245. 6; w. gerund, 
300. 

obed, constr., 228. a. 

Obeying, vbs. of, 227; w. acc., id. a. 

Object cases, 177. 0. 

Object clauses, infin., 330; subj., 
331%) 332: 
Object defined, 177 ; becomes sub- 

‘ject of pass., id.'a, 237. a; acc. of 
direct w. dat. of indir. obj., 225; 
secondary obj., 239. 2; obj. of 
anticipation, 334. c. 

Objective case expressed in Latin by 
gen., dat., acc., or abl., 177. 3. 

Objective compounds, 168. ¢. 

Objective genitive, mei, etc., 99. ¢; 
defined, 213. 2; with nouns, 217; 
with adjs., 218. 

Obligation, unfulfilled, hort. subj., 
266. e. 

Oblique cases, 31. 2. 

obvius (obviam), as apparent adj., 
188. ¢. 1; with dat., 228. 4. 

Scior, comp., QI. d. 

Occasion, expressed by participle, 
292. 

octddecim, 94. c. 

ddi, conj., 143. @; w. meaning of 
present, 279. ¢. 

oe, written e (long), 12. c. 

offendd, constr., 228. a. 

-oléns, -olentus, adj. endings, 164. 2. 

ollus (ille), 100. a, 





NDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


-olus, diminutive ending, 164. a. 

Omission, of consonant, 11. 4; of 
possessive, 197. c; of antecedent, 
200. ¢. ; 

omnés ; nds omnés (instead of omnés 
nostriim), 216. e. 

-6n, Greek ending, decl. II., 43. 

-On, gen. plur., decl. II., 43. ¢. 

-On, nom. ending, 63. ¢, d. 

dn, stem ending, 63. c. 

ont-, nom. -6n, 63. a. 

opera, with gen., 246. 3. 

operam do, w. dat. of gerund, etc., 
299. a2; with subjunc., 331. 

Operations of nature, 146. a. 

opinidne, with compar., 247. 4. 

opinor, position of, 345. c. 

oportet, 146. ¢; with acc. of object, 
237-¢; in apod., 308. ¢; imperfect 
refers to present, plupf. to past, 
311. ¢. R.3 w. subjunc. or inf, 
331si2: 

oportuit, w. pres. inf., 288. a. 

oppidum, ad, 258. 4. N. 3. 

oppiignd, w. acc., 228. a. 

ops, decl., 46. 

Optative subj. (wzsh), 267; w. uti- 
nam, etc., id. 4; velim, etc. w. 
subjunc., equiv. to, id. c. 

optimatés, 54. 3, 706. 2. 

opus and tsus, w. abl., 243. ¢; as 
pred. nom., id. R.; w. participle, 
292. 6; w. supine in -i, 303. 

-or, noun-ending, 163. a. 

-or or -6s, nom. ending, 48; gend., 

SOSaa. 

Oratid obligua, see Indirect Dis- 
course. 

Order of words, 343-346. 

Ordinal Numbers, 94; decl., 94.7 

-drius, adj. ending, 164. 2. 

6rd, constr., 331. 

Orpheus, decl., 43. 

-ds, nom. ending, 48. N; gend., 65. a. 

os-, stem of comparatives, 86. a. 

-os for -us, in nom. sing., decl. II., 
38. N.; as Greek ending, 43; as 
gen. ending, decl. III., 63. 7 

os, ossis, decl., 61. 

-Osus, -oléns, -olentus, adj. endings, 
164. &. 

ovat (defective), 144. e. 

ovis, decl., 57. 4, 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


P, parasitic after m (simpsi), II. ¢. 

paenitet, 146. 4; constr., 221. 4, c. 

palam, as apparent adj., 188. ¢. 3; 
with abl., 207. 4, 261. 4. 

rie 3; stems, decl. III., gender, 


asian decl., 84. a. 

Panthis, vocative of, 43. 4, 63. z. 

par, decl., 85. 4, 87. a;. with gen., 
234. @ ; w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299. 
foot-n. 

Parallel verb-forms, 134. 

Parasitic sounds, II. c. 

paratus, with infin., 273. d. 

Pardoning, verbs of, with dat., 227. 

parélion, decl., 43. 

Parisyllabic nouns of decl. III., 53. 
a; adjectives, 84. 

partem, adverbial use, 240. 4. 

parte, locative use, without preposi- 
tion, 258. f 

particeps, decl., 87. 4, d. 

Participial clause implying condi- 
tion, 310. a. 

PARTICIPLES, defined, 25 ; compari- 
son of, 89. ¢; number of, 109. a; 
how used, 113; as adjs., id. ¢; as 
nouns, id. 7; used predicatively 
as adjs., id. g; parts. in -ns, used 
as adjs., with gen., 218. 4; clause 
equivalent to part., 201. 4; parts. 
in abl. absolute, 255. 

PARTICIPLES, Syntax, 289-293; 
agreement, 186. N.; meaning and 
form, 289; tenses, 290; present 
in special use, id. a; pres. pass. 
part., how supplied, id. ¢; perf. 
act., how supplied, id. ¢d; parts. 
of deponent verbs, 135. a, 4, 290. 
6, ad; adjective use, 291: predi- 
cate use, 492; with opus, id. 4; 
perf. with habed, id. c; present 
with facis, id. e ; future part., 293 ; 
with past tenses of esse, id. c; 
gerundive, use as part. or adj., 
294; future part., in indirect ques- 
tions, 334. @; part. as protasis, 
310. @. 

Particles defined, 27; forms and 
classification, p. 96 ; interrogative, 
149. @; negative, id. ¢, 209; in 
compounds, 170; Syntax, 207- 
212 ; use of interrogative particles, 





359 


210. a, @; conditional particles, 
304. a, 315; particles of compari- 
son, 312. 

Particular conditions defined, 304. d. 

partior, conj., 135. 

Partitive numerals, 97. c. 

Partitive genitive, 216; 
etc., 99. 6. 

Parts of Speech, 25. 

partus, decl. 70. d. 

parum, comp., 92; meaning, 93. ¢. 

parvi, gen. of value, 252. a. 

parvus, comp., go. 

Passive voice, 108, a ; forms wanting 
in, 110. 6; signification, I11; re- 
flexive meaning, id. a ; deponents, 
Iti. 4; passive used impersonally, 
141. a, 146. d ; 230, 330. a—c, 331.4 

pater familias, decl., 36. 0. 

patiéns, comp. of, 89. ¢. 

patior, constr., 331. ¢. 

Patrials in -as, decl., 54. 3, 87. d. 

Patronymics (-ades, -ides, -éus, etc.), 
164. 6. 

pauper, decl., 87. 4. 

pec, gend., 69. 4. 

peciiniae, gen., w. vbs. of accusing, 
220. a. 

pedester, decl., 84. a. 

pelagus (plur. pelagé), gend. of, 39. 4. 

pelvis, decl., 57. 4 

Penalty, gen. of, 220; abl. of, id. 4. 

Penatés, decl., 54. 3 (cf. 76. 2). 

penes, following noun, 263. N. 

Pentameter verse, 363. 

Penult, defined, 19; rules of quan- 
tity, 349-354- 

penus, gend., 69. a. 

per, prep., 152. @; w. acc. of agent, 
246. 6. Adverbial prefix, w. adjs., 
oie ¢ (cf. 93 d); w. verbs, 170. 


nostrim, . 


Pecauing, verbs of, constr., 272, 330. 

perendié (loc.), 74. c. 

Perfect participle, used to form 
tenses, 110. 6; other uses, I13. c. 
1; of deponents, 135, 4; used as 
nouns, retain adv., 207. ¢; dat. of 
agent with, 232. a; abl. w. opus 
and tisus, 243. e, 292. 6. 

PERFECT TENSE distinguished from 
imperf., 115. 4,c; perf. def. and 
perf, hist., id. c, 279; stem, how 


360 


formed, 124 ; contracted perf., 128. 
a, 6; perf. subj. in -sim, 128. ¢. 3; 
irreg. forms of conj. II., 131. 

PERFECT TENSE, Syztax. Perf. Ind., 
use, 279 ; in fut. conditions, 307. ¢; 
in general conditions, 279. 4, 309. 
¢; gnomic perf., 279. c. Perf. 
Subj., hortatory, 266. N.; in pro- 
hibitions, 266. 4, 269. a; optative, 
267. a; in fut. conditions, 307. ¢; 
potential, 311. a. Perf. Inf., in 
exclamations, 274. N.; special uses, 
288. d, ¢; in indir. disc., 336. A. 
N. I. Sequence of Tenses, perf. 
ind., 287.@; subjunc., id. 4, c ; inf., 
336. B. N. 2. 

Periclés, decl., 63. z. 

Period, 346 ; note on, id. headnote. 

Periphrastic conjugations, 113. 4. N., 
d@.N.; paradigms, 129; periphras- 
tic forms in conjugation, 147; use 
in contrary to fact apodosis, 308. d; 
in ind. questions, 334. @.., 

Permission, vbs. of, constr., 331. ¢. 

permittd, w. dat., 227. ¢. 

permits, w. abl., 252. ¢. 

pernox, decl., 87. 7. 

perpes, decl., 87. a. 

Persés, decl., 37. 

Person, 108. @; agreement, 181 ; of 
vbs., 204 and a; with different 
persons, 205. a; order of the three 
persons, id. 

Personal constr. of passive with in- 
finitive, 330. a, 3, d. 

Personal endings, 116, 117. 2. 

Personal pronouns, 98, 99. Syntax, 
194; omitted, 194. a, 206. a; gen. 
pl., 194.4; 3d pers., 206. 4, 174; 2. 

persuaded, constr., 331. 

Persuading, verbs of, with dat., 
227. 

pertaesum est, 221. d. 

pés, comps. of, decl., 87. d. 

petd with ab, 239. c. N. 1; w. sub- 
junc., 331. 

ph only in Greek words, 2. a, 3. 

Phonetic variations, 8; vowels, 10; 
consonants, II ; phonetic method 
of pronunciation, 16. 

Phrase, defined, 179. 

Phrases, neut., 29. c; adverbial 
phrases, 179; phrases limited by 





INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


gen., 214. d; phrase or clause in 
abl. abs., 255. 3. 

Physical qualities, abl. 251. a. 

piget, constr., 221. 3. 

Pity, verbs of, constr., 221. a. 

pius, comp., 89. d, 91. a. 

Place, advs. of, 149. a; relations of, 
require prep., 229. a, 258. @, ¢; 
place of birth, abl., 244. 6; place 
where, 254, 258. c, @; place to or 
from which, 258; prep. when 
omitted, 258, a, 4, f, g; locative 
case, 258. c. 2, d, ¢. 

Placing, vbs. of, constr., 260. a. 

Plants, gend. of names of, 29. 3. 

plauds, w. dat., 227. e. 

Pleasing, verbs of, constr., 227. 

Plenty, verbs of, constr., 223, 248. c. 

plénus, construction, 223, 248. ¢. R. 

-plex, numeral adjectives in, 97. 

pluit (impers.), 146. @; used person- 
ally, id. N. 

Pluperfect Indicative, use of, 280; 
epistolary, 282; plup. indic. in 
conditions cont. to fact, 308. c; 
in general conditions, 309. ¢c. Plu- 
perf. Subj., hortatory, 266. ¢; op- 
tative, 267; in conditions, 308 
(sequence, 287. f); potential, 311. 
aN. 2. 

Plural, wanting in decl. V., 74. d; 
used in sense different from sing., 
75. a—c, 79. c; pl. alone used, 76; 
neut. pl. of adjs., 189. 4. 

Plirélia tantum, 76. 

pliris, gen. of value, 252. a, d. 

pliis, decl., 86. and 4; comp., 90; 
without quam, 247. c. 

poenitet, see paenitet. 

poéma, decl., 47. 6. 

pond, w. abl., 260. a. 

por-, prefix, 170. 4. 

porticus, gend., 69. a. 

portus, decl., 70. d. 

Position, expressed by ab, ex, 260. 6. 

Position in Prosody, 18, 347. d. 

Possession, how expressed, 99. @; 
dat. of, 231; compared w. gen., 
id. R. 

Possessive compounds, 168. d. 

Possessive genitive, 214. a-c; dat. 
of reference used instead, 235. a. 

Possessive pronouns, 99. @; w. gen. 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


in appos., 184. @; agreement, 197; 
instead of gen., id. @; special 
meanings, id. 4; omission, id. c; 
used substantively, 190. a, 197. d; 
used for gen., 214. @; for obj. 
gen., 217. a. 

Possibility, vbs. of, in apodosis, 
308. ¢. 

post, vbs. comp. w., w. dat., 228. 

post, adverbial use of, 261. d; with 
quam, 262. 

postera, comip., 91. 4; posteri, 91. J. 

posterior, 91. a, 4. 

Postpositive conjunctions, 156. 2. 

postquam (posteaquam), in temporal 
clauses, 324. 

postrém6, in enumerations, I51. d. 

postridié, with gen., 223.¢; with acc., 
207. 6, 261. a; with quam, 262. 

postuld ab, 239. c. N. 1; postuld ut, 
x. 

Poential subjunctive, 311. @. 

potior (adj.), comp., 91. d. 

potior (verb), with gen., 223. a, 249. 
a; w. abl., 249; gerundive, 296. R. 

potius, comp., 92. 

potui, w. pres. infin., 288. a. 

Power, adjs. of, w. gen., 218. 

Practice, vbs. of, 167. c. 

prae, 152. 6; in comp., 93. d; in 
comp., w. dat., 228 ; in comp., w. 
quam, 262. N. I; quantity of, in 
compounds, 347. 8. 

praeceps, decl., 85. 4, 87. a. 

praecipi6, constr., 331. 

Praenomen, 80. a.; abbreviations, 
id. d. 

praepes, decl., 87. d. 

praestolor, constr., 227. 3. 

praesum, w. dat. of gerund, etc., 
299. a. 

praeter, use, 152. a. 

praeterit, w. acc., 237. ¢. 

precor, constr., 331. 

Predicate, p. 124; defined, 172; 
modified, 178 ; pred. noun or adj., 
172. N.. 176; case, 176. 4; pred. 
nom., etc., 185 ; pred. noun refer- 
ring to two or more sing. nouns, 
id. 5; adjective, 186. 4, c, d; 
agreement in, 187. a, 4; in rel. 
clause, 199; pred. adj. in neut. 
pl., 187. c; pred. adj. in relative 





361 


clause, 200. d ; pred. acc., 239 and 
a; adj. as pred. acc., id. N. 1; 
pred. acc. becomes pred. nom. in 
the pass., id. N. 2; predicate gen. 
214. ¢, d; predicate use of parti- 
ciples, 292. 

Predicate noun or adj. after inf., 270. 
N. 2, 271. €, 272. @. 2 and N., 6: 
Prepositions, defined, introd.; list 
of preps. w. acc., 152. a; w. abl. 
id. 6; with either, id. ¢; com- 
pounded w. vbs. and adjs., 170. a, 
¢; noun w. prep., instead of obj. 
‘gen., 217. ¢; in composition w. 
vbs., w. dat., 228, 229; acc. in 
compos. 239. 4; w. abl. of separa- 
tion, 243. 4; prep. omitted in re- 
lations of place, 258. a, 4, ff g; 
use of, 260-263; preps. following 
the noun, 263. N. ; usual position 


of, 345. a. 
Present Participle, decl., 85; use, 
113. a. 


Present tense, with iam didi, etc., 
276. a; conative, id. 4; for fut., 
id. c; historical, id.d; with dum, 
id. ¢; in quotations, id. /; se- 
quence, 286, 287. ¢, 4; pres. inf. 
w. potui, etc., 288. a; participle, 
290-292. Pres. inf. in ind. disc. 
referring to past time, 336. A. 
N.I. 

Present subjunc. in -im, 128. ¢. 2. 

Preteritive verbs, 143. N., 279. ¢. | 

Preventing, verbs. of, constr., 225. 
c. N. 2. 

Price, abl. or gen., 252. 

pridié, form, 74. c; with gen., 223. 
é@; with acc., 207. 6; constr. as 
prep. or adv., 261. a; with quam, 
262. 

Primary suffixes, defined, 159, 160. 

Primary tenses, 285. 1, 286. 

primipilaris, decl., 57. a. 

Primitive verbs, 165. 

prim6, primum, meanings, 151. d. 

primdris, defect., 87. 7 

princeps, decl., 87. 0. 

Principal parts of verb, 122. 4, a. 

prior, comparison, 9I. 

prius, with quam, 262; priusquam 
in temporal clause, 327. 

Privation expressed by abl., 243. 


362 


pro, 152. 5; in comp., w. dat., 228 ; 
to express for, 236. R. 

probo w. dat., 227. ¢; 232. ¢. N. 

procérus, decl., 82. a. 

procul with abl., 261. 4. 

prohibed, constr. of, 225. d. 

Prohibitions, 266. 4, 269 and a, d. 
N.; in ind. disc., 339. N. 2. 

Promising, etc., verbs of, 330. 7. 

Pronominal roots, 157, 159; as 
primary suffixes, id. 

Pronouns defined, introd.; decl. 
of, 98-105 ; personal and reflexive, 
98; gen., how used, 99. a-c; 
demonstrative, 100-102 ; relative, 
interrog., and indef., 103-105 ; 
pron. contained in verb-ending, 
174. 2. 

PRONOUNS, Syztax, 194-203; Per- 
sonal, 194; Demonstrative, 195; 
idem, id. c, ¢; ipse, id. #7; Re- 
flexive, 196; Possessive, 197 ; 
Relative, 198; Relative, in prot- 
asis, 316; Indefinite, 202. Prons. 
w. part. gen., 216. a; Position of 
prons., 344. Z, 345. ¢ 

Pronunciation, Roman method, 16; 
English method, 17. 

pronintid, constr., 331. 

prope, comp., OI. @; use, 152. a. 

Proper names, 80 ; plur., 75, 76. 1. 

Proper nouns, def., introd. 

properus, decl., 82. a. 

propinquus, with gen., 234. d. 

proprior (proprius), comparison, 9I. 
a; constr., 234. ¢, 261. a and N. 

Proportional numerals, 97. a. 

Propriety, vbs. of, in apodosis, 308. 
Cy Bbw: 

proprius, with gen., 234. d. 

propter, use, 152. @; position, 263. 
N.; denoting motive, 245. 0. 

PROSODY, 347-375: 

prospicio, w. dat. or acc., 227. ¢. 

Protasis (see Conditional Clauses), 
304 ff.; loose use of tenses in 
Eng., 305. R.; relative in prot., 
316; temporal particles in, 322; 
ante-quam, priusquam, in, 327. 4; 
prot. in ind. disc., 337. 1. 

Protecting, vbs. of, constr., 225. d. 
N. 2. 

provided, w. dat. or acc., 227. ¢, 





INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


Proviso, subj. used in, 266. @; in- 
troduced by modo, etc, 314; 
result clause as, 319. 4, 320. d. 

proximé, constr., 207. 4, 261. a, 234. e. 

proximus, constr., 234. ¢. ; 

-pse, -pte (enclitic), 99. 4 101. N. 

pibés, decl., 87. ¢. 

pudet, 146. 4; constr., 221. d-c. 

puer, decl., 38 (cf. 41. a). 

puppis, decl., 56. 4, 57. 4. 

Purpose, infin. of, 273; expressed 
by gerundive after certain vbs., 
294. @; by gerund or gerundive 
as predicate gen., 298 R.; ways of 
expressing, 318. Clauses of, 180. 
é; defined and classified, 317; use 
of qué in, id. 6; main clause 
omitted, id. c; nédum, id. rR. and 
N. Substantive clauses of, used 
after certain verbs, 331; of wish- 
ing, id. 4; of permitting, id. c; 
of determining, id. ¢ ; of caution, 
etc., id. e; of fearing, id. f 

Purpose or end, dat. of, 233. 

puter, decl., 84. a. 


qua... qua, 208. d. 

quadrupés, decl., 87. d. 

quae res (or id quod), 200. e. 

quaerd, constr. (ex or dé), 239. c. N. 
2; w. subjunc., 331. 

quaes6, conj., 144. d. 

qualis, 105. 2. 

Qualities (abstract), gend., 29. 2. 

Qualities of an object compared, 
192. 

Quality, adjs. of, 164. 7; gen. of, 
215, 251. a; to denote price, 252. 
a, 6; abl. of, 251 (cf. 215. N.). 

quam, with superlative, 93. 4; cor- 
relative w. tam, 107; with com- 
paratives, 247. a, ¢; after alius, 
id. d; w. compar. of advs., id. ¢; 
with ante, post, 262; with subj. 
after comparatives, 320. ¢; fol- 
lowed by result-clause, 332. 6; in 
indirect questions, 334. ¢; in in- 
direct discourse, 336. a. R.,¢., N. 2. 

quamdid, 328. N. I. 

quamlibet, concessive, 266. c, 313. 

quam qui, quam ut, with subj., 
320. ¢. 

quamquam, use, 156. 7; with indic., 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


313. ¢; introducing a proposition 
= and yet, id. f; w. subj., id. g. 

quam si, 312. 

quamvis, use, 156. 
266. ¢, 313. @, &. 

quandé (interrog.), meaning, 156. ¢; 
indef., id. ; temporal, 322. 

quanti, gen. of price, 252. a 

Quantity, gen. of adjs. of, denoting 
price, 252. a. 

Quantity in Prosody, marks of, 5; 
general rules of, 18, 347 ; final 
syllables, 348 ; penultimate sylla- 
bles, 349-354- 

quanto, w. tanto, 106. c, 250. R. 

quantum (with mirum), in indirect 
questions, 334. ¢. 

quantumvis, concessive, 313. 

quantus, 105. g. 

quasi, with primary tenses, 312. R. 

quasso (intensive), 167. 4. 

-que (enclitic), added to indefinites, 
105. ¢; as conjunction, use, 156. 
a, 208. 6. 3; quantity, 348. I. 

queo (defective), 144. g. 

Questions, direct, in indic., 112. a, 
210-212; double questions, 211 ; 
question and answer, 212; result 
clause in exclam. questions, 332. ¢; 
mood in indirect question, 334 ; 
in indirect discourse, 338 ; in in- 
formal ind. disc., 341. @. 

qui (relative), decl., 103; (interrog. 
and indef.), 104 and @; in com- 
pounds, 105; qui = ut is, with 
subj., 317, 319; qui causal and 
concessive, 320. é. 

qui (adverbial), 104. ¢. 

quicum, 104. ¢. 

quia, use, 156. £; causal, 321; w. 
verbs of feeling, 333. 4; in inter- 
mediate clauses, 341. d. 

quicumque, decl., 105. a. 

quidam, decl., 105. c; meaning of, 
202. a; with ex, 216. ¢. 

quidem, use, I51. ¢; with is or 
idem, 195. ¢; position of, 345. 2. 

quilibet, decl., 105. ¢; use, 202. ¢. 

quin, w. indic. equivalent to com- 
mand, 269. f; in result-clause (= 
qui non), 319. @; w. verbs of 
hindering, 332. g; non dubitd quin, 
332. g Re 


Zz; subj. with, 





363 


si hala gend., 69. a; pl. only, 

7 

quippe, with relative clause, 320. e. 
N. ; with cum, 326. N. I. 

Quirités, 79. c. 

quis, decl., 104; distinguished from 
qui in use, id. @ and N.; com-: 
pounds of (aliquis, etc.), 105; 
quis with si, num, né, 105. ¢; indef. 
use of, 202. a. 

quis est qui, 320. a. 

quis, dat. or abl. plur., 104. d, 

quisnam, IOS. 7. 

quispiam, 105. ¢; use of, 105. d. N., 
202. a. 

quisquam, decl., 105. c; use, 105. d. 
N., id. 4, 202. 4, ¢. 

quisque, form and decl., 105. ¢; use 
with superlative, 93. c; in general 
assertions, 202. @; in dependent 
clause, id. e; with plural verb, 
2O5.:6. 23 

quisquis, decl., 105. 0. 

quivis, decl., 105. ¢; use, 202. ¢. 

quo, approaching abl. of cause, 
250. N. ; 

qué, in final clauses (= ut ed) with 
subj., 317. 4; non quo, 321. R. 

quo . . . ed, 106. c; to denote deg. of 
difference, 250. R. 

quoad (purpose, etc.), 328. 

quod for id quod, 200. ¢. N. 

quod (conj.), 156. £; mood with, 
321; in indirect discourse, id. a; 
subst. clause with, 333; as acc. of 
specification, id. a ; with verbs of 
feeling, id. 4; quod in intermediate 
clauses, 341. d and R. 

quod sciam (proviso), 320. d. 

quod si, use, 156. 4, 240. 4. 


“quom (see cum), 7, 156. ¢. 


quéminus (= ut ed minus), w. vbs. of 
hindering, 317. 4. N. I, 319. ¢, 
B32: 

quoniam, meaning, 156. /; in causal 
clauses, 321. 

quoque, use, I51. a; position, 345. 4. 

quot, indeclinable, 106. a. 

Quotation, forms of, w. apud and 
in, 258. c. 2. N. 2; direct and 
indir., 335. 

quotus quisque, 105. ¢, 

quu- (cu-), 7 


"364 


R subst. for s between sonants, Ir. 

a; r- in adj. stems, 85; rr- in noun 
stems, 48. 

5 ratus, as pres. part., 290. 0. 

~ ravis, decl., 56. @ 

.  re- or red- (prefix), 170. 4. 

> Receiving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 

j 294. d. 

= .Reciprocal (each other), how ex- 

pressed, 99. d, 196. 7. 

re with acc., 219. 4. 













ediy plication, 124. ¢, 158. ¢; lost in 

i@i, etc., 124. c. N.; rule for 

uantity, 351. c. 

ert, with gen. or ange adj., 

221 other constr. ., id. } 

belie object of, 218. . 

Reference, pronouns of, 195. a; 
commonly omitted, id. 4; dative 
of, 235; gen. of specification, 
218. ¢. 

Reflexive pronouns, 98. 2. @, 4, 102. 

é. N.; Syntax of, 196; of 1st and 

2d person, id. 2. 

eflexive verbs (deponent or pas- 

Sive), 135. ¢; use of passive, III. 

\@; with object acc., 240. N. 

Refusing, vbs. of, w. qudminus, 
319. ¢. 

Regular verb, 121-136. 

Relationship, nouns of, 164. 4. 

Relative adjectives, w. gen., 218, 
with a, d. 

Relative adverbs, used correlatively, 
107 ; used to connect independent 
sentences, 201. ¢; == pronoun with 
prep., 207. @; referring to loca- 
tive, 201. /; used instead of rel. 
pron., id. f. 2, 207. a; used in 
relative clauses of purpose, 317 ; 
of result, 319; position, 201. c. 

Relative clauses, defined, 180. ¢; w. 
relative advs., 201. %. Syntax, 
316-328; conditional, 316; final, 
317, 318; consecutive, 319 ; char- 
acteristic, 320 ; causal, 321; tem- 
poral, 323-328; ‘rel. clauses in 
ind. disc., 340; position of rel. 
clause, 345. ¢: 

Relative pronouns, decl., 103 ; forms 

how distinguished from interroga- 

tive and indef., 104. a ; compounds 





INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


of, 105. Syntax, 198-201; rules 
of agreement, 198, 199; w. two 
antecedents, 198. a; rel. in agree- 
ment w. appos., etc., 199; use of 
the antecedent, 200; special uses 
of rel., 201 ; never om. in Lat., 
201. a; pers. of verb agreeing w., 
204. a; abl. of rel. after comp., 
247. a. R.; position, 345. ¢. 

reliquus, use, 193; reliqui, 
203. a. ] 

Remembering, vbs. of, constr., 219; 
w. inf., 271. 

Reminding, vbs. of, constr., 219. c. 

Removing, vbs. of, w. abl., 243. a. 

[rén], decl., 54. 2. 

repetundarum, 220. a. 

Repeated action as general condi- 
tion, 309. 4. 

Repraesentatid, 276. d. N.3; in ind. 
disc., 336. B. a. 

Requesting, vbs. of, constr., 330. 2. 

rés, decl., 72. 

Resisting, vbs. 
319. a. 

Resolution of syllables in Prosody, 


use, 


of, ‘constr, +277, 


357 

Resolving, verbs of, constr. (subjunc. 
or inf.), 331. a. 

restat, with ut, 332. a. 

restis, decl., 56. 4. 

Restriction in subjunctive clause, 
320. d. 

Result, clauses of, 180. ¢; sequence 
of tenses in, 287. ¢; infin. of, 273. 
g. Subjunctive with relatives or 
ut, 319; negative result with ut 
non, etc., id. a, d. R.; result clause ° 
equivalent to proviso, id. 6; with 
quominus, id. c; with quin, id. 2; of 
characteristic, 320; with expres- 
sions of existence and non-exis- 
tence, id. a; with inus and sdlus, 
id. 6; with comparatives, id. ¢; 
with dignus, etc., id. £ Subst. 
clauses of result after faci6, etc., 
332 ; as subject, id. a ; after quam, 
id. b; in exclamatory questions, 
id. ¢; tantum abest ut, id. d; 
thought as result, id. 7 

Result, nouns denoting, 163. ¢. 

réte, decl., 57. a. 

réx, decl., 46. 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


Rhetorical questions in ind. disc., 
338. 
Rhythm, development of, nature of, 


355 
Rhythmical reading, 359. R. 
ri-, adj. stems in, 84. a. 
rivalis, decl., 57. 4. 
Rivers, names of, gender, 29. a. 


ro- stems, decl. II., 38; adj. stems, 


82. 

rogd, constr. of, 239. ¢ and R.; w. 
subjunc., 331. 

Roman method of pronunciation, 16. 

Root, defined, 22, 157; root used 
as stem, 158. 

1r-, as stem ending, 48. c. 

rt-, stems in, decl., 87. 4. 

ruri, locative, 62, 258. d. 

ris, constr., 258. a, 4, d. 


S changed to 1, II. a; -s as sign of 
nom., 32. 4, 38, 44, 72, 85; -s, 
noun ending, decl. III., gend., 65. 
6; s suppressed in verb-forms, 
128. 0. 

s- as stem ending, 60. d; of adjs., 
85. 4,N.; of comparatives, 86. a. 

s as suffix of perfect, 124. d. 

sacer, comp., QI. d. 

saepe, comp., 92. 

Salamis, decl., 63. a. 

saliber, decl., 84. a. 

saliitem, 240. d. N. 

salvé, defective, 144. 7. 

sané quam, 334. ¢. 

sapiéns, decl., 57. d. 

satagod, with gen., 223. N. 

satis, comp., 92; compounds of, 
with dat., 227. ¢; nOn satis, 93. 
é; satis est (satis habed), with 
perf. infin., 288. ¢. 

satur, genitive of, 41.4; decl., 82; 
comp., 9I. d. 

Saying, verbs of, constr., 330; in 
passive, id. a, 4, 336. 

Scanning, 359. 6. 

scin, contracted form for scisne, 13. c. 

scid, imperative of, 269. e. 

scisco, constr., 331. 

scitd, scitdte, imperative forms, 128. 
d, 269. é. 

-scd (inceptive), verbs ending in, 
167. a. 





365 


scrobs, decl., 54. 2. 

sé- or séd-, insepar. prefix, 170. 4. 

sé, reflexive, decl., 98. 2.4; use, 196; 
inter sé, 99. d, 196. 7. 

Second Conjugation, prin. parts., 
122. ¢; paradigm, p. 76; verbs of, 
131; derivation, 166. d. 

Second Declension, nouns, 38-43; 
accent of gen. and voc. of nouns 
in -ius, 40. 4. 

Secondary accent, 19. 4. N. 

Secondary object, 239. 2. 

Secondary suffixes, defined, 159. 

Secondary tenses, 285; rule for use 
of, 286; perf. def. more commonly 
secondary, 287. a; perf. subj. in 


clauses of result used after, 287... 


c; hist. pres., id. ¢; imperf. and 
pluperf. subj., id. 4 g; present 
used as if secondary, by synesis, 
id. 2. 

secundum, 152. a. 

seciris, decl., 56. 4, 57. a. 

secus, indecl. noun, use, 240. 4. 

secus (adv.), comp., 92. 

seciitus (as pres. part.), 290. 4. 

sed-, see sé-. 

sed compared with vérum, etc., 156. 6. 

sédés, decl., 59. 

sedile, decl., 52. 

Selling, vbs. of, 252. d. 

sémentis, decl., 56. 4, 57. 4. 

Semi-deponents, 136. 

sémineci, defect., 87, 7 

Semi-vowels, i and v (u), 4. 

senati, senadtuos, forms of gen. in 
decl. IV., 70. 

senex, decl., 60. c, 61; adj. masc., 88. 
6; comparison, QI. c. 

séns, as participle of esse, I19. a. 

Sentence, defined, 171; simple or 
compound, 180 Lompoie Note, 
p- 124); incomplete, 206. 

Separation, dat. of, after comps. of 
ab, dé, ex, and after adim6, 229; 
abl., 243; gen. for. abl., 223, 243. 

Sequence of tenses, 28 5-287 ; in ind. 
disc., 336. B; in conditional sen- 
tences, in ind. disc., 337. 4. 

sequor, Conj., 135. ; 

séra nocte, 193. N. 

seriés, decl., 74. d. 

Service, adjs. of, w. dat., 234. a. 


366 


Service, dat. of, 223. a. 

Serving, verbs of, with dat., 227. 

servus (servos), decl., 38. 

séstertium, séstertius, 377-379; how 
written in cipher, 380. 

seu (sive), 156. c, 315. ¢. - 

Sharing, adjs. of, with gen., 218. a. 

Showing, verbs of, with two accs., 
239. a. 

si, w. subj. of wish, 267. 6. N. 1; si 
and its compounds, use, 304. a, 
315; si non distinguished from 
nisi, 315. a; si=whether, 334. /; 
Miror Si, 333. R. 

Sibilants, 3. 

sic, correl. with ut, 107, 319. R.; 
with si, 304. 6. 

Significant endings, 161-164. 

-silis, adj. ending, 164. m. 

silvester, decl., 84. a. 

-sim, old form of perf. subj., 128. 
a2: 

similis, comparison, 89. 4; with gen. 
and dat., 234. d and 2. 

Simois, decl., 64. 

Simple sentences, 180. 

simul with abl., 261. 2. 

simul, simul atque (ac), 324. 

simul... simul, 208. d. 

sin, 304. a. 

Singularia tantum, 7 5. 

sind, constr., 331. c. 

-sid, noun-ending, 163. 4. 

siquis, decl., 105. d. 

-sis-, dropped in perf., 128. 4. 

sitis, decl., 52. cf. 56. a. 

Situation or direction, 235. 4. 

sive (seu) . . . sive, use, 156. ¢c, 315. ¢. 

Smell, verbs of, with acc., 237. c. 

-sd, verbs in, 167. 4. 

-80, old form of fut. perfect, 128. ¢. 3. 

socrus, gend., 69. a. 

sddés (si audés), 13. c. 

soled, semi-dep., 136. 

solits, with comp., 247. 4. 

solitus as pres. part. 290. 0. 

sdlus, decl., 83; with relative clause, 
320. b. 

Sonants, 2. a. 

-sor, see -tor. 

Sodracte, decl., 57. d. 

Source, expressed by abl., 244. 

-sdria, noun-ending. 164.2. 4; -sdrius, 





INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


adj. ending, id. 2; -sdrium, noun- 
ending, id. 2. 5. 

Sospita, fem. adj. form, 85. c¢. 

Sounds, see Pronunciation. 

Space, extent of, expressed by acc., 
2e7. : 

Sparing, verbs of, with dat., 227. 

spé, with comp., 247. 4. 

Special verb-forms, 128. 

speciés, decl., 74. d. 

Specification, gen. of, with adjs., 218. 
c; acc. of, 240. c; abl. of, 253. 

specus, gend., 69. a. 

Spelling, variations of, 12. 

spés, decl., 72. N. 

Spirants, 3. a. 

Spondaic verse, 362. a. 

Spondee, 356. 4. 

Stanza or Strophe, 361. 

statud, constr., 260. a; w. inf. or 
subjunc., 331. d. 

Statutes, fut. imv. in, 269. d. 3. 

stella, decl., 35. 

Stems, defined, 21 ; classified, 157 ; 
how formed from root, 23, 159; 
how found in nouns, 32. a; 4- 
stems, decl. I. 35; adjs., 81 ; 
o-stems, decl. II, 38 and N.; 
adjs., 81; in decl. III., mute 
stems, 44; liquid-stems, 48 ; vowel- 
stems, 51; u-stems, decl. IV., 68; 
in tu-, 71; of verb, 117. 1; pres- 
ent, perfect, and supine, 121; perf. 
stem, 124; supine stem, 125. 
Tenses arranged by stems, syn- 
opsis, 127. 

sto, w. ablative, 254. d. 

strigilis, decl., 57. 4. 

strix, decl., 54. 2. 

Structure of Latin sentences, 346. 
head-n. 

strués, decl. 59. 

studed, w. dat., 227. e. 

suaded, w. dat., 227. 

sub, use, 152. c; in comp., w. dat., 
228 ; of time, 259. 4. 

sub-, in comp. w. adjs., 93. ¢, 170. ¢} 
w. verbs, 170. @, ¢. N. 

sube6, w. acc., 228. a. 

Subject, p. 124; defined, 172; how 
expressed, 173, 174; modified, 178; 
vb. agrees w., 204; two or more 
subjs., 205; subj. omitted, 206; 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


accusative, 272; in indirect dis- 
Course, 336; position of subject, 
_ 343- 
“ eect Cae (infin.), 270, 330; 
saojee +). 331. head-n. ; - 
(aihiuietoo. ate 


n. and a, d. : 06. &. fined, 213.1; 
Subjective genitive, dauns, at 
use, 214. Pero: 


Subjunctive mood, 108. 6; tense> 
wanting in, 110.@; how used and 
translated, 112. 6; tenses how 
used, 115. @ Classification of 
uses, 265 (cf. footnote); general 
use, 265; hortatory subj., 266; 
optative subj., 267 ; deliberative, 
268; tenses of subj., 283-287 ; 
temporal ‘clauses, 323; potential 
subj., 311. @; subj. of modesty, 
id. 6; subj. in ind. disc., 336; in 
informal ind. disc., 341 ; of inte- 
gral part, 342. 

subolés, decl., 59. 

Subordinate clauses, defined, 180. 4; 
use, 316-328; in ind. disc., 336, 


339 

Subordinate conjunctions, 154. 4. 

Substance, gen. of, 214. ¢; abl. of, 
244. 

Substantive clauses, 329-334; na- 
ture and classes of, 329; Infin. 
clauses, 330; clauses of Purpose, 
331; of Result, 332; Indic. w. 
quod, 333; Indirect Questions, 
334; adj. w. subst. clauses, 189. d. 

Substantive use of adjs., 188; of 
possessive prons., 190. a, 197. d. 

Substantive verb (esse), 172. N. 

subter, 152. c; use, 260. d. 

suétus, w. infin., 273. 4. 

Suffixes, 159 ; primary, examples of, 
160; significant, 161-164. 

sul, decl., 98. 4; use, 196; w. gen. 
of gerund., 2098. a. 

sum, conj., 119; as copula, 172.N.; 
as substantive vb., id.; omitted, 
206. c; w. dat. of possession, 231 ; 
position, 344. ¢, 7. 

summus (Zop of), 193- 

sunt qui, 320. a. 

suovetaurilia, 168. a. 

supellex, decl., 60. c. 

super, 152. ¢; use, 260. ¢; in comp., 
170. a; incomp., w. dat., 228. 





367 


supera, comp., 91. 4; superi, id. 

superior, comparison, gr. 4. 

Superlative, in timus, 89. a; of 
adjs. in -lis, id. 6; with maxima 
id.d; of eminence, 93. 6; with 
quam, vel, or dnus, id.; with quis- 
que, id. c; denoting order, ‘suc- ‘ 
cession, 193. 

superstes, decl., 87. a, 3. ; 

Mp Adi of decl. IV., (aoe 4 
use on: 2.4: 6; stem, 121.¢; for- 
mation, 125. Former Supine, use 
of, 302; Latter, 303; as abl. of 
specification, 253. a. 

supplex, decl., 87. 4, d. 

supplicd, w. dat., 227..¢, 3. 

supra, use of, 152. a. 

-siira, noun-ending, 163. 4. 

Surds, 2. a and 3. 

-surid, vbs. in, 167. e. 

-sus, phonetic form of -tus, 71; 
noun-ending, 163. 4. 

sis, decl., 60. a, 61. 

suus, use, 196. 

Swearing, vbs. of, constr., 238. ¢, 
330. f- 

Syllables, rules for division of, 14 ; 
long and short, 18. 

Syneeresis, 347. c. 

Syncope, Io. ¢. 

Synecdoche, defined; see Glossary. 

Synecdochical accusative, 240. c. 

Synesis, defined, 182. a; in gend. 
and number, 187. @; in sequence 
of tenses, 287. %. 

Synopsis of tenses (am6), 127; of 
impersonal verbs, 145. 

Syntactic compounds, 170. 

SYNTAX, 171-346; historical de- 

_ velopment of, N., p. 124; outline, 
pp- 124, 125. Important rules of 
Syntax, pp. 305 ff. 

Syntaxis and parataxis, p. 124. 


T, t-(s-), supine stem ending, 125. 

-t, nouns in, gend., 65 c. 

ta, primary suffix, 160. c. 2, 162. 6. 

taedet, impersonal, 146. 4; constr., 
22%, ¢: 

Taking away, vbs. of, 229. © 

Talent, value of, 382. 

talis, 105. g, 106. 

talis ut, etc., 319. R. 


368 


tam, correl. with quam, 107; correl. 
with ut, 319. R. 

tamen, 156. z, &; as correlative, 
id. z. 

tametsi, concessive use, 156. z, 313.c. 

tamquam, in conditional clauses, 
312; with primary tenses, id. R. 

tandem, in questions, 210. 7. 

tanti, gen. of value, 252. a, d. 

tanto following quanti, 106.c, 250. R. 

tantum, with subjunctive of proviso, 
314. 

tantum abest ut, 332. d. 

tantus, 105. 7, 106; tantus ut, 319. R. 

-tas, -tia, noun-endings, 163. e. 

Taste, verbs of, with acc., 237. ¢. 

tat-, as stem ending, 54. 2. 

-te (enclitic), 99. 7 

Teaching, vbs. of (two accs.), 239. ¢. 

tego, conj., p. 78. 

Telling, vbs. of, constr:, 272, 330, 
ioe 

Temporal clauses, defined, 180. «¢, 
322-328 ; as protasis, 322; two 
uses, 323 ; W. postquam, etc., 324 ; 
w. cum, 325; w. antequam and 
priusquam, 327; w. dum, donec, 
quoad, 328; replaced by abl. ab- 
solute, 255.@.  - 

Temporal numerals, 97. 0. 

tempus est abire, 298. N. 

Tendency, adjs. denoting, 164. 7. 

TENSES, 108. ¢; of passive voice, 
II1; of participles, 113; classifi- 
cation, meaning and use, 115; of 
the ind., id. a—c ; of the subj., id. 
d; endings, 118; synopsis of, 
127 ; of ind., 264. a. 

TENSES, Syntax, 276-288; Present 
tense, 276; Imperfect, 277; Fu- 
ture, 278; of Completed action, 
279-281 ; Epistolary tenses, 282 ; 
of subjunctive, 283-285; sequence 
of, 285-287 ; tenses of the infini- 
tive, 288 ; tense emphatic, 344. d. 
3; tenses of inf. in ind. disc., 
336. a; tenses of subj. in ind. 
disc., 336. 4; affected by reprae- 
sentatid, id. a; in condition in ind. 
disc., 337- 

tenus, constr., w. gen., 223. ¢; w. abl., 
260. ¢; position, 263. N., 345. @. 

-ter, adv. ending, 148. 4, c. 





INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


teres, decl., 87. 2; comp., gI. d. 

Terminations of nouns,, 34; of 
verbs, 118. See Endings. 

-ternus, as adj. ending, 164. e. 

terra marique, 258. d. 

terrester, decl., 84. a. 

Tetrameter, Iambic, 366. a. 

Than, how expressed, 247. 

The-as correlative, 106. c. 


Thesis and Arsis, 358. 


Thinking, vbs. of, constr. with acc. 
and inf., 272, 330. B. 1. 

Third conjugation, of verbs, prin. 
parts, 122. c; paradigm, p. 78; in 
-id, paradigm, p. 80; derivation of 
vbs. in -u6, 166. ¢. 

Third declension, of nolins, 44-67 ; 
mute stems, 44-47; liquid-stems, 
48-50; vowel-stems, 51-59; case 
forms, 56; peculiar forms, 60, 61 ; 
Greek nouns, 63, 64; rules of gen- 
der, 65. 

Though, see Although. 

Thought, considered as result, 332.7 

Threatening, vbs. of, 227, 330. 7. 

-tia (tiés), noun-ending, 163. ¢. 

-ticus, adj. ending, 164. g. 

tigris, decl., 64. 

-tilis, adj. ending, 164. m. 

-tim, adverbs in, 56. a. 3. 

Time (see Temporal Clauses), 264. 
@; 284. 

Time, advs. of, 149. 4. 

Time, duration of, 256 and 4; time 
when, 256; corresponding to Eng. 
place, 259. a; time during or with- 
in which, w. ordinal, id. c; dis- 
tance of time, id. d; abl. abs. to 
denote time, 255. and d@. 1. 

Time, mode of reckoning, 327 ff. 

timed, w. dat., or acc., 227. c; with 
subjunctive, 331. 7 

-timus, adj. ending, 164. e. 

-tid, noun-ending, 160. 4, 163. 4. 

tid (-sid), -tiira, -tis (-titis), noun- 
endings, 163. 4. 

-tium, noun-ending, 163. f 

-tivus, verbal adj. ending, 164. 7. 

-td, -itd, frequent verbs in, 167. 4. 

To (so as to), 319. d. R. 

100.5 «:\s, £0y:3205 Ne 

-tor (-sor), -trix, nouns of agency in, 
162. a; used as adjs., 88. c, 188. d. 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


-toéria, noun-ending, 164. z. 4. 

-tdrium, noun-ending, 160. 4; 164.7. 5. 

-torius, adj. ending, 160. 6; as noun- 
ending, 164. 2. 

tot, use, 106 and a.° 

totidem, use, 106. a. 

totus, decl., 83; nouns w., in abl. 
without prep. (place where), 258. 
f. 2 


Towns, names of, gend., 29. 4, 39. @ ; 
names of towns in -e, decl., 57. d; 
locative of, 258. c. 2; as place 
from which, id. a; as place to 
which, 258. 4. 

traicid, constr., 239. 4. R. 
lora, id. 

trans, 152. a; comps. of, w. acc., 
237- @; w. two accs., 239. dand R. 

Transitive adjectives, 218. 

Transitive verbs, 175. 6, 177; abso- 
lute use, 175. 6. N. 2; how trans- 
lated, 177. c; w. dat., 255. 

Transposition of vowel and liquid, 
g. d, 124. a. N.; of consonants, 
Ei; @ 

Trees, names of, gend., 29. 4. 

trés, decl., 94. c. 

tri-, stem ending of nouns, 51. 4, 54. 
1; of adjs., 84. a. 

Tribe, abl. of, 244. 4. N. 

Tribrach, 356. a. 

tribilis, decl., 57. a. 2. 

tribus, gend., 69. a; decl., 70 d. 

tridéns, decl., 57. 4. 

trirémis, decl., 57. 4. 

-tris, adj. ending, 164. e. 

triumpho, w. abl., 245. a. 2. 

-trix, see -tor. 

Trochaic verse, 360. 

Trochee, 356. a. 

-trum, noun-ending, 163. d. 

Trusting, vbs. of, constr., 227. 

ti, decl., 98. 1 (see tite, titimet). 

-ti, -si, supine endings, 114. 4. 

-tiidd, -tiis, noun-endings, 163. e. 

ore 139; quantity, 351. 4 

X. 


; traiectus 


-tum, -sum, supine endings, 114. 3. 
tum, correl. w. cum, 107, 156 4. 
tum... tum, 208. d. 

-tira, -tiis, noun-ending, 163. 3d. 
-turid, vbs. in, 167. e. 

turris, decl., 52 (cf. 56. 4). 





369 


-turnus, adj. ending, 164. e. 

-tus, adj. ending, 164. f; noun-end- 
ing, 71, 163. ¢. 

tussis, decl., 56. a. 

tite, 99. f; titimet, 99. 7 

Two accusatives, 239. 

Two datives, 233. a. 


U (v), as consonant, 4; not to fol- 
low u or v, 7. 

u-stems, of nouns, decl. III., 60. a, 
61; decl. IV.,68; of verbs, 166. 


fe Buc 

iiber, decl., 85. 4, 87. ¢. 

ubi, in temporal clauses, 322, 324. 

ubiubi, 105. 4. 

-ubus, in dat. and abl. pl., decl. IV., 
70. d. 

-uis (-uos), in gen., decl. IV., 70. a. 

-ilis, adj. ending, 164. d. 

illus, decl., 83; use, 105. 4, 202. 4, 
c. 

ilterior, comparison, QI. a. 

iltra, 152. 2; following noun, 263. N. 

-ulus, diminutive ending, 164. @; 
verbal adj. ending, id. 2. 

-im for -drum, 36. ¢; for -drum, 40. 
é; -im in gen. pl. of personal 
prons., 194. 4; -tim for -ium, decl. 
IIIL., 59; in gen. pl. of adjs., 87. 
d; for -uum, decl. IV., 70. ¢. 

Undertaking, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 
204. a. 

Unorganized forms of expression, 
p- 124. 

unquam, use, 105. 2. 

int-, stem ending, 63. e. 

tinus, decl., 83; meaning, 94. a, 95. 4. 

inus qui, w. subj., 320. 4. 

iinus quisque, decl., 105. ¢; use, 202. 
d. 


uo, suffix, see va. 

-ud, vbs. in, 166. c. 

-uos, see -uis. 

-ur, nouns in, 65. ¢. 

urbs, decl., 54; use in relations of 
place, 258. 4. N. 3. 

Urging, vbs. of, with ut, 331. 

-urid, desiderative verbs in. See 
-turid. 

-urnus, adj. ending, 164. ¢. 

-irus, fut. part. in, 113. 4, 293; w. 
fui, 293. ¢, 308. d@; in ind. ques- 


370 


tions, 334. 2; -iirus fuisse, in ind. 
disc., 337. 4. 

-us, nom. ending, decl. II., 38, 39; 

_ -us for -er in Gr. nouns, decl. II., 
43. 4; gend., 65. ¢; decl. IV., 68 ; 
gend., 69; neut. ending, 163. a. 

-is, Gr. nom. ending, 63. e. 

Use, adjs. of, constr., 234. 4. 

usquam, use, 105. 2. 

usque, w. acc., 261. a. 

tisus (zeed), w. abl., 243. e. 

ut (uti), correlative w. ita, sic, 107; 
to denote concession, 266. ¢, 313. 
@; w. optative subjunc., 267. 4; 
in clauses of purp., 317; of result, 
319; ut né, id. @; ut non, etc., 
319. d. R.; ut temporal, 322, 324; 
verbs followed by clauses w. ut, 
331, 332; omission after certain 
verbs, 331. 7. R., z N. I and 2; 
w. verbs of fearing, 331. /; used 
elliptically in exclamations, 332. ¢. 

ut, utpote, quippe, w. relative clause, 
320. ¢. N. I; w. cum, 326. N. 

ut primum, 324. 

ut semel, 324. 

uter, interrog, and indef. pron., 104. ¢. 

iter, decl., 51. 4, 54. I. 

uterque, form and decl., 105. ¢; use, 
202. d; constr. in agreement and 
as partitive, 216. d. 

utervis, use, 202. c. 

uti, utinam, w. subj. of wish, 267. 4. 

itilis, w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299. 
foot-n. 

utpote qui, 320. ¢. N. 

itor, etc., w. abl., 249; gerundive 
use of, 294. c. N., 296. R. 

utrum... an, 211 and d. 

utsi, constr., 312 and R. 

-iitus, adj. ending, 164. 7 

utut, 105. 4. 

-uus, rare nom. ending, decl. IV., 
70. 6; verbal adj. ending, 164. /. 


V (u), p- 43 4, 73 omitted, 11. 4; in 
tenuis, 16. N.; suffix of perf., 124. 
a; suppressed in perf., 128. a; v 
often om. in perf. of ed and its 
comps., 141. 6; v by synzresis, 
347. ¢ 

va, primary suffix, 160. ¢. 2. 

vafer, comp., gI. d. 





INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


valdé, use, 93. d. 

Value, gen. of indefinite, 252. a. 

Value, measures of, 377-380. 

Variable nouns, 78, 79 (cf. 74. 4). 

Variations, see Phonetic Variations 
and Inherited Differences. 

Variations of Spelling, 12. 

vas, decl., 60. d. 

vatés, decl., 59. 

-ve, vel, use, 156. c, 212. R. 

vel (see -ve), w. superl., 93. 4. 

velim, vellem, subj. of modesty, 311. 


velim, vellem, w. subjunc. (—opt.), 
267. c (=imv.), 269. g. 

vellem, see velim. 

veluti, velutsi, 312. 

véned (vénum ed), 258. J. R. 

vénerat — aderat, 279. ¢. 

VERBS, Ztymology. Verb, defined, 
introd. ; inflection, 108-110; noun 
and adj. forms of, 109;  signifi- 
cation, of forms, III-I15; per- 
sonal endings, 116; forms of the 
verb, 117, 118 (note on origin and 
hist. of vb.-forms, p. 95); table 
of endings, 118; the three stems, 
121 ; regular verbs, 122-136; the 
four conjugations, 122 and a; 
prin. parts of, 122. 6, c; mixed 
verbs, id. @; deponents, 135; 
semi-deponents, 136; irregular 
verbs, 137-142; defective, 143, 
144; impersonal, 145, 146; peri- 
phrastic forms, 147; compound 
verbs, 170; vowels in comp. verbs, 
170. a. N. Derivation of verbs, 
165-167. 

VERBS, Syztax. Subject implied 
in ending, 174. 2; rules of agree- 
ment, 204-206; verb omitted, 
206. c; rules of Syntax, 264-342. 
Cases w. vbs., see under Accusa- 
tive, etc. Position of verb, 343, 
344, d,7. (See under the names of 
the Moods, etc.) 

Verba sentiendi et décldrandi, 272, 
330, 336; passive use of, 272. R. 
330, @-c; in poets and later writ- 
ers, id. d. 

Verbal nouns with dat., 227. d. 

Verbal nouns and adjs. with reflex- 
ive, 196. d. 


INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 


Verbal atic OH 7-p; in -ax, 
with gen., 218. 

Verbal roots, 157. I. 

vereor, with gen., 223. 6. 1; w. sub- 


junc., 331. 7 

veritus, as pres. part., 290. 4. 

vérd, 156. 4, £; in answers, 212. a; 
position of, 345. 4. 

Verse, 359- 

Versification, 359-362; 
verse, 360. 

versus, position of, 345. a. 

verto, constr., 252. ¢. 

veri, gend., 69. 4; decl., 70. d. 

vérum or vérd, use, 156. 4, &. 

vescor, with abl., 249; gerundive, 
294. ¢. N., 296. R. 

vesper, decl., 41. 4. 

vesperi (loc.), 41. 4, 258. a. 

vester, 98. 3. 

vestri as obj. gen., 99. ¢, 194. 6. 

vestrim as part. gen., 99. 4,194. 4,cf.N. 

vetd, w. acc. and inf., 271. 4, 330. 2, 
and 3d. 2. 

vetus, decl., 85. 4, 87. ¢; compari- 
son, 89. a, gl. d. 

vicem, adverbial use of, 240. 4. 

video ut, 331. 

videor, with dat., 232. ¢. 

vin (visne), 13. ¢. 

vir, decl., 38, 41. 4. 

virgo, decl., 49. 

virus, gender of, 39. 4. 

vis, stem, 54. 2; decl., 

viscera, 79. ¢. 

visd, 167. ¢, N. 

vocalis, decl., 57. 0. 

VocaTIVE, 31. ¢; form, 33. @; in -i 
of nouns in -ius, decl. II., 40. c,d; 
of adjs. in -ius, 81. a; of Greek « 
nouns, 43. 6. Syntax, 241. 

Voices, 108. a, 111 ; middle voice, 
id, a5: T 35. ¢. 

vol, and comps., conj. -» 1383; w. in- 
fin., 271 and N. ; part. of, as dat. 
of reference, 235. ¢; Ww. perf, part., 
288. d, 292. d.N.; w. subj. or inf., 
331. 6 and n. 

volucer, decl., 84. a. 

volucris, decl., 59. 


forms of 


61. 





371 


-volus, adj. in, comparison, 89. c. 

vos, 98. I. 

voster, etc., see vester. 

voti damnatus, 220. a. 

Vowels, 1; long and short, how 
marked, 5; inherited differences 
in, 9; contraction, Io. 4; syncope, 
id. ¢; insertion, id. d; dissimila- 
tion, 11. 7; pronunciation, 16, 17 ; 
long and short, 18; quantity of 
final vowels in case endings, 33. 2 ; 
vowel modified in noun-stems, 
decl. IJI., 45; lengthened in 
root, 124. d, 158. 6. and N. 

Vowel-changes, 10. 

Vowel-suffixes (primary), 160. ¢. I. 

Vowel-stems, decl. III., 51-59. 

vulgus (volgus), gend., 39. 4. 

-vus, verbal adj. ending, 164. 2. 


W, not in Latin alphabet, p. 4. 

Want, words of, with abl. 243; with 
gen., 223, 243. f. 

Way by which Tabi. ), 258. g. 

Weight, measures of, 382. 

Whole, gen. of, 216; numbers ex- 
pressing the whole, 216. e. 

Wills, fut. imv. in, 269. @. 3. 

Winds, gender of names of, 29. 

Wish, expressed by subj., 267 ; as a 
condition, 310. 4 ; wish in informal 
ind. disc., 341. 4. 

Wishing, verbs of, with inf., 288. d 
(cf. 271. a) ; with subst. clause of 
purp., 317, 331. 6; with acc. and 
infin., 330. 3, 331. 4. 

Without, with verbal noun, 292. N. 
I. 

Women, names of, 80. ¢. 

Words, formation of, 157-170 ; ar- 
rangement of, 343-346. 


X, nom. ending, 44; gend., 65. 3. 


-y, noun-ending, gend., 65. ¢. 

Year, p. 327; months of, 327, 328; 
date, 259. e, 376. 

Yes in Lat., 212. 

-ys, nom, ending, 63. g, 46; gend., 
65. 4; quantity, 348. 9. 








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